Genes & Genealogy

05/11/2025

🚨 𝑭𝑰𝑵𝑨𝑳 𝑪𝑶𝑼𝑹𝑺𝑬 𝑶𝑭 𝑻𝑯𝑬 𝒀𝑬𝑨𝑹 𝑨𝑳𝑬𝑹𝑻! 🚨
My '𝘔𝘢𝘴𝘵𝘦𝘳𝘪𝘯𝘨 𝘞𝘈𝘛𝘖 & 𝘞𝘈𝘛𝘖 𝘗𝘭𝘶𝘴: 𝘛𝘩𝘦 𝘚𝘶𝘱𝘦𝘳 𝘛𝘰𝘰𝘭 𝘍𝘰𝘳 𝘋𝘕𝘈 𝘔𝘺𝘴𝘵𝘦𝘳𝘪𝘦𝘴' workshop hosted by Family History Academy begins this week.

This two-part workshop will delve deeply into why, when and how to use the ‘What Are The Odds?’ tools at DNA Painter. I’ll provide detailed step-by-step guidance on both the original and new WATO Plus tools, with everything demonstrated through genuine case study examples. By the end of the workshop, we’ll also explore more advanced WATO techniques that can help you supercharge your hypotheses!

𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐃𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐥𝐬:
📅 6th & 20th November
🕒 3pm Eastern / 8pm UK
💻 Platform: Zoom
🎥 All sessions are closed captioned, recorded and available for viewing for 14 days following each session (so you can still attend even if you can't make it live)

𝐁𝐨𝐧𝐮𝐬: One course attendee will win a one-year DNA Painter subscription (or a one-year extension if already subscribed), kindly gifted by Jonny Perl and DNA Painter

👉 Find out more and book here:
https://www.familyhistoryacademy.com.au/mastering-wato/

Whether you’re starting your genealogical journey or an experienced researcher looking to refine your digital expertise, this course will help you maximise your efficiency, improve accuracy, and creatively share your research with others.

03/11/2025

𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐫 𝐰𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐟 𝐲𝐨𝐮’𝐫𝐞 𝐮𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐖𝐀𝐓𝐎 𝐭𝐨 𝐢𝐭𝐬 𝐟𝐮𝐥𝐥 𝐩𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥?

If you’ve seen discussions about What Are the Odds? (WATO) and WATO Plus and wanted to really understand how to apply them to complex cases, this upcoming 𝐭𝐰𝐨-𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤𝐬𝐡𝐨𝐩 with Michelle Leonard might be exactly what you need.

Michelle will walk through:
✅ Building and testing WATO trees
✅ Evaluating and comparing hypotheses
✅ Using WATO Plus to handle complex or multiple relationships.

✨ Bonus: One course attendee will win a one-year DNA Painter subscription (or a one-year extension if already subscribed), kindly gifted by Jonny Perl and DNA Painter.

🗓️ 6 & 20 November @ 3 PM Eastern US
🎥 Recordings available for 14 days
🎓 Hosted by Family History Academy
https://www.familyhistoryacademy.com.au/mastering-wato/

11/08/2025

🚨 𝑷𝑬𝑵𝑼𝑳𝑻𝑰𝑴𝑨𝑻𝑬 𝑪𝑶𝑼𝑹𝑺𝑬 𝑶𝑭 𝑻𝑯𝑬 𝒀𝑬𝑨𝑹 𝑨𝑳𝑬𝑹𝑻! 🚨
My 'Using DNA to Solve Unknown Parentage Mysteries' course hosted by Family History Academy begins this week.

Knowing where we come from is something most of us take for granted, but for those with unknown parentage situations, the search for answers can sometimes feel overwhelming.

This two-part course offers a clear, compassionate, and practical approach to solving those mysteries. Through genuine case studies, you will learn the important techniques I use in real-life casework to uncover missing parents and grandparents, including how to analyse DNA results and build targeted family trees.

Whether you’re searching for your own answers or helping someone else find theirs, this course will guide you step by step.

𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐃𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐥𝐬:
📅 14th & 28th August
🕒 3pm Eastern / 8pm UK
💻 Platform: Zoom
🎥 All sessions are closed captioned, recorded and available for viewing for 14 days following each session

👉 Find out more and book here:
https://www.familyhistoryacademy.com.au/using-dna-to-solve-unknown-parentage-mysteries

Learn step-by-step strategies to solve unknown parent and grandparent cases using DNA and traditional research methods. Taught by DNA Detective Michelle Leonard.

03/06/2025

𝙁𝙄𝙉𝘼𝙇 𝘾𝘼𝙇𝙇! My popular Family History Academy 'Chromosome Mapping' course is back and begins tomorrow. The course will take place over two sessions on 4th & 18th June at 2:30pm Eastern/7:30pm UK time. If you love addictive puzzles and would like to master mapping your DNA back to your ancestors then don't miss this opportunity to learn how to do it.

This course will provide in-depth step-by-step guidance and practical techniques to help you assign DNA segments to specific ancestors, create detailed chromosome maps, and make new family history discoveries.

Here's what you'll learn:
• How to understand DNA segment data (this is essential before you can start mapping!)
• A detailed guide to conventional chromosome mapping
• An overview of the available chromosome mapping tools
• Step-by-step guidance on creating chromosome maps (at DNA Painter)
• Detailed instruction on inferred chromosome mapping
• Top tips on best practices and pitfalls to avoid

Both sessions will be recorded and recordings will be available for 14 days.

Find out more and book at: https://www.familyhistoryacademy.com.au/chromosome-mapping/

25/09/2024

📢 𝑬𝒙𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑵𝒆𝒘𝒔: 𝑴𝒚 𝑫𝑵𝑨 𝑩𝒐𝒐𝒕𝒄𝒂𝒎𝒑 𝒊𝒔 𝑩𝑨𝑪𝑲! 🎉

The 5th edition of my popular Bootcamp in partnership with Family Tree Magazine kicks off 𝐓𝐎𝐍𝐈𝐆𝐇𝐓, Wednesday, 25th September at 7pm BST! 🧬✨

When & Where:
📅 𝐃𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐬: Wednesdays 25th Sep-13th Nov
🕖 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞: 7pm BST
💻 𝐖𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞: Online via Zoom

This 8-week interactive course includes:
✅ 4 live webinars packed full of up-to-date DNA learning
✅ 4 interactive follow-up Q&A sessions
✅ My newly updated 52-page DNA Workbook (digital copy included with the course, with the option to purchase a print version)
✅ Access to a dedicated DNA Bootcamp Facebook group for ongoing support
✅ Pre-reading material and more!

💻 𝐂𝐚𝐧’𝐭 𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐝 𝐥𝐢𝐯𝐞? No problem! You’ll get access to session recordings shortly after each live event and throughout the course, plus for an additional 3 months after the final session. Watch and re-watch whenever it suits you!

Each week will provide you with new knowledge and step-by-step advice and there will be plenty of opportunities to pose your questions directly to me during the live sessions and in the dedicated Facebook group. If you're ready to enhance your family history research through DNA, this is your chance! 🚀

🌟 𝐒𝐢𝐠𝐧 𝐮𝐩 𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞: 👉 https://bit.ly/dna-bootcamp24

I'm excited to kick off another edition of the DNA Bootcamp and can’t wait to hear lots of participant success stories!🧬🕵️‍♂️

👉 Feel free to share this post!

19/09/2024

I'm looking forward to presenting my 'Combining DNA & Traditional Research: In-Depth Case Studies' presentation for the Florida State Genealogical Society's 'Poolside Chats' program this evening at 8pm EDT. Registration for this session is open to all but please note that the recording will only be available to FSGS members.

Webinar Abstract: DNA testing has exploded onto the genealogy scene in recent years and is now one of the most important tools available to advance family history research. In order to successfully use DNA testing for genealogy, however, it is essential to combine it…

17/09/2024

My next Family Tree Magazine DNA Club presentation takes place tomorrow!

Pitch it right when you reach out to a DNA match. Join us next week (Wed 18th Sept, 12.30pm UK time) for Michelle Leonard's webinar on DNA match messaging skills. Learn how best to message your matches. Find out more at https://tinyurl.com/de36ukzj

09/09/2024

🌟 𝑵𝒆𝒘 𝒕𝒐 𝑫𝑵𝑨? 𝑳𝒆𝒕'𝒔 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕! 🌟

Are you curious about DNA but don’t know where to start? Join me for my '𝑫𝑵𝑨 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑨𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑩𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒔' webinar, hosted by Family Tree Magazine. I'll walk you through the basics and give you the essential DNA know-how to kick-start your journey!

📅 Date: Wednesday 11th September
⏰ Time: 7pm - 8:30pm (BST)
💻 Platform: Zoom
💰 Cost: £10 (FREE for Family Tree Plus subscribers)
🎥 Can’t make it live? No problem! A recording will be available for 7 days after the live session so you can easily catch up at a time that suits you
🎟 More Info & Booking: https://tinyurl.com/24du4jvw

Make this the month you unlock the secrets of !

Do you know absolutely nothing about DNA, but would like to change that?  If so, join us for DNA Detective Michelle Leonard's webinar - held live on 13 September 2023.

01/09/2024

This is a must-read research guide from Scottish Indexes on 'identifying the father of an illegitimate child' through both traditional sources and DNA evidence. The final point about testing is particularly crucial: while attempting to locate a record naming the father should always be your first step in an illegitimacy situation, remember that a name on paper doesn’t always equate to the genetic truth. In many cases I've worked on, the man listed as the father turned out not to be the genetic father after all. It's essential to use whatever clues we can but be cautious and combine historical records with DNA testing for a complete and accurate picture.

This fantastic write-up is part of the invaluable series by Scottish Indexes - I highly recommend exploring the entire series on their page!

Identifying the father of an illegitimate child.



We mentioned in that a common reason a birth registration is hard to find is that the child is indexed under their mother’s maiden name because she was unmarried at the time of the child’s birth. From 1855 to 1919 you may see ‘illegitimate’ written on a birth certificate. In other records, you may see ‘natural child’ which means the same thing. A person who was illegitimate not only had no right to an inheritance from their biological father but also from their mother. In fact, they themselves had no lawful heirs unless they married and had children. Of course most of our ancestors also had no money or property!

What we want to know is who was the father of the illegitimate child. There are a few records that can help. Here are the principal ones.

1 - Sheriff Court Records

Fathers were required to pay towards the maintenance of their children, whether they were married to the mother or not. Some fathers did this voluntarily, others were taken to court. Most court cases were heard in the Sheriff Courts and many unmarried women had their cases paid for. A mother had to prove she was in a relationship with the man accused.

From 1855 a successful case proving paternity was reported to the registrar and an entry was made in the Register of Corrected Entries. This basic entry linked to the child’s birth certificate should give the name of the child’s father and his designation; generally occupation and residence.

The Sheriff Court records will give you even more detail. If an extract of the court decree was made a copy was written in a book and these can be easily accessed on Scottish Indexes. The entry may give brief details of the case, tell you how much the father was required to pay and for how long. This entry may also give you a fuller designation of the father which can be helpful.

Court processes may also have survived, that is the paperwork relating to the case. These vary considerably. If the father did not fight the case little survives however if there was a drawn-out case you may find letters, photographs, statements from those involved and detailed accounts of the couple's relationship.

Sadly, not all Sheriff Court Processes survive but most before 1860 and after 1910 do. Work to index these is ongoing but if you have a date from the extracted decree or the Register of Corrected Entries these can be located. Scottish Indexes offers a service to locate and copy these.

From 1855 the Register of Corrected Entries will point us to a case but these types of cases predate civil registration. So far the earliest entry we have indexed is from 1748 but work is still ongoing.

If you are looking for a pre-1855 case which is not in our index we can use minute books and inventories to search for a case. Just email us at Scottish Indexes and we can recommend a research strategy. There is also a more detailed explanation of these records with examples in our Learning Zone.

You can search the records indexed so far using the ‘Scottish Paternity Index’.

2 - Kirk Session records

As well as the state, the church (Kirk in Scotland) may also be involved when an unmarried woman had a child. There were two elements, first of all the couple would be disciplined by the Kirk but also the Kirk put pressure on the father to pay maintenance for the child. If this was unsuccessful the mother may still have had to take the father to court.

Records of discipline by the parish church can therefore tell us who the father of an ‘illegitimate’ child was. A record can often be found for both the mother and father of the child, this could be in the same parish or in different parishes.

The good news is that most surviving pre-1900 records are now available for free on ScotlandsPeople. The bad news is that there is no index.

Go to ScotlandsPeople > Search our records > Virtual Volumes > Place search and now type the name of the parish where your ancestor was living. Select the parish records and you will see a list of surviving volumes. Generally, discipline cases are in the volumes containing minutes, that is the minutes of the Kirk Session. Select the volume containing the right years and read from about the time of conception until the child is a year or two old (or until you find the entry). It is possible that the case is recorded after the child is a few years old so if you don’t find it you could keep searching. Most parents wanted their child baptised quickly though so the discipline case is often shortly before or not long after the birth of the child.

On both our website Scottish Indexes and the government website ScotlandsPeople you will find guides to help you get the most out of these records.

3 - Poor Relief records

As an unmarried woman with a small baby, many mothers needed financial assistance. Surviving records may name the father of her illegitimate child. Survival rates and the information given in these records vary dramatically around the country. The Learning Zone on Scottish Indexes gives an overview of what can be discovered with links to some indexes available online.

4 - Marriage and Death Certificates

If a mother was unmarried the father’s name could not go on the child’s birth certificate unless the father went with her to register the child or as a result of a court order. When the person was born illegitimately went on to marry, however, they may at that time have given the name of their biological father. People did not always do this, for example they may named their stepfather instead, but it’s worth looking at their marriage certificate just in case. The same is true when a person dies, you may see something like ‘reputed father’ so always look at birth, marriage and death certificates.

5 - Baptism records

Before 1855 we rely on baptism records but we use them less after 1855 because civil registration is so comprehensive. However, as I said strict criteria had to be fulfilled for a father’s name to be recorded in the civil registration records. This was not the case with baptism records. Consulting post-1855 baptism records can be extremely useful. Many of these are held by the National Records of Scotland and can be consulted in their Digital Archive Search Room for free. If you cannot visit the search room in person Scottish Indexes can make a search for you. See our ‘Research Services’ page.

6 - DNA

We have an advantage that the Sheriff Courts of the 19th century did not have, which is DNA testing. This can be a conclusive way to discover the father of an illegitimate ancestor. Michelle Leonard of Genes & Genealogy is a specialist in this area and regularly shares her knowledge with us all at the Scottish Indexes Conferences. Follow Michelle on Facebook to see when and where she will be speaking if you want to learn more about using DNA to trace your family history.

21/08/2024

I'm looking forward to teaching my 'Unexpected DNA Surprises course for the Society of Genealogists starting tomorrow Thurs 22nd August.

The course will take place:

🗓 Thursdays, 22 August - 5 September 2024
🕒 7:30pm - 8:45pm (BST)
💻 Zoom

DNA is a powerful tool in genealogy, but it can sometimes reveal unexpected results. Over three weeks, I will guide you through understanding and assessing these surprises. Whether it's a close relative you didn’t expect to match with, distant connections that don't align or a lack of matches to known ancestral lines this course offers practical guidance, case studies, and step-by-step demonstrations to help you navigate these mysteries.

**Why Attend?**
If you’ve ever been puzzled by unexpected DNA matches—or want to be prepared just in case—this course is for you.

🔗 More Info & Booking: https://tinyurl.com/buj9n76u
🎥 **Recording available** until 19th September so don't worry if you can't make it live as you can still catch up.

27/06/2024

I'm looking forward to hosting this webinar series by the fantastic Donna Rutherford for Family Tree Magazine starting this evening!

Join DNA expert Donna Rutherford for this exclusive 2-part webinar series, covering how to build expert research trees and how to improve your skills and become a DNA detective.