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06/06/2025

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05/06/2025

WHAT IS METHYLDOPA (Aldomet)?

Methyldopa, or α-methyldopa, is a centrally acting sympatholytic agent and an antihypertensive agent. It is an analog of DOPA (3,4‐hydroxyphenylanine), and it is a prodrug, meaning that the drug requires biotransformation to an active metabolite for therapeutic effects. Methyldopa works by binding to alpha(α)-2 adrenergic receptors as an agonist, leading to the inhibition of adrenergic neuronal outflow and reduction of vasoconstrictor adrenergic signals. Methyldopa exists in two isomers D-α-methyldopa and L-α-methyldopa, which is the active form.

MECHANISM OF ACTION

The exact mechanism of methyldopa is not fully elucidated; however, the main mechanisms of methyldopa involve its actions on alpha-adrenergic receptor and the aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase enzyme, to a lesser extent. The sympathetic outflow is regulated by alpha (α)-2 adrenergic receptors and imidazoline receptors expressed on adrenergic neurons within the rostral ventrolateral medulla. Methyldopa is metabolized to α‐methylnorepinephrine via dopamine beta-hydroxylase activity and, consequently, alpha-methylepinephrine via phenylethanolamine-N-methyltransferase activity.

INDICATION /USES

Methyldopa is indicated for the management of hypertension as monotherapy or in combination with hydrochlorothiazide. Methyldopa injection is used to manage hypertensive crises.

DOSING INFORMATION

Adults—250 milligrams (mg) to 2 grams a day. This is divided into two to four doses. Children—Dose is based on body weight or size and must be determined by your doctor. The usual dose is 10 mg per kilogram (kg) (4.5 mg per pound) of body weight a day.

SIDE EFFECTS

The common side effects of methyldopa are:
- Nausea
- Diarrhea.
- Headache.
- Dizziness.
- Sedation.
- Dry mouth.
- Rash.

Serious side effects include
- Hemolytic anemia (Coombs positive)
- Lupus-like syndrome.
- Myocarditis.
- Pancreatitis.
Hepatotoxicity.
- Immune thrombocytopenia.
- Reversible leukopenia.
- Involuntary choreoathetotic movements.

CONTRA-INDICATIONS

- Active hepatic disease
- Liver disorders due to previous therapy.
- Direct Coombs positive hemolytic anemia.
- Significant drug history of MAO inhibitor therapy
- Pheochromocytoma.
- Known hypersensitivity to methyldopa in any form

INTERACTIONS

These include monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors, haloperidol, levodopa, lithium, aceclofenac and antihypertensive medicines for high blood pressure. Licorice should be avoided because it can counteract the blood pressure-lowering effects of methyldopa. Ephedra should be avoided for the same reasons.

SUMMARY

Methyldopa is a centrally-acting alpha-2 adrenergic agonist used to manage hypertension alone or in combination with hydrochlorothiazide, and to treat hypertensive crises.

04/06/2025

WHAT IS AMLODIPINE

Amlodipine, initially approved by the FDA in 1987, is a popular antihypertensive drug belonging to the group of drugs called dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers. Due to their selectivity for the peripheral blood vessels, dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers are associated with a lower incidence of myocardial depression and cardiac conduction abnormalities than other calcium channel blockers.

MECHANISM OF ACTION

Mechanism of action on blood pressure
Amlodipine is considered a peripheral arterial vasodilator that exerts its action directly on vascular smooth muscle to lead to a reduction in peripheral vascular resistance, causing a decrease in blood pressure. Amlodipine is a dihydropyridine calcium antagonist (calcium ion antagonist or slow-channel blocker) that inhibits the influx of calcium ions into both vascular smooth muscle and cardiac muscle. Experimental studies imply that amlodipine binds to both dihydropyridine and nondihydropyridine binding sites, located on cell membranes. The contraction of cardiac muscle and vascular smooth muscle are dependent on the movement of extracellular calcium ions into these cells by specific ion channels. Amlodipine blocks calcium ion influx across cell membranes with selectivity. A stronger effect of amlodipine is exerted on vascular smooth muscle cells than on cardiac muscle cells. Direct actions of amlodipine on vascular smooth muscle result in reduced blood pressure.

INDICATION /USES

Amlodipine may be used alone or in combination with other antihypertensive and antianginal agents for the treatment of the following conditions Label:

- Hypertension
- Coronary artery disease
- Chronic stable angina
- Vasospastic angina (Prinzmetal’s or Variant angina)
- Angiographically documented coronary artery disease in patients without heart failure or an ejection fraction < 40%

DOSING INFORMATION

Hypertension
5 mg/day PO initially; may be increased by 2.5 mg/day every 7-14 days; not to exceed 10 mg/day maintenance: 5-10 mg/day
Adjust dosage according to blood pressure goals

Angina & Coronary Artery Disease
5-10 mg/day PO initially; maintenance: 10 mg/day PO

SIDE EFFECTS

Common side effects
These common side effects of amlodipine happen in more than 1 in 100 people. They're usually mild and only last for a short time.
- Headaches
- Feeling dizzy
- Flushing
- A pounding heartbeat
- Swollen ankles

Serious side effects
Serious side effects after taking amlodipine are rare and happen in less than 1 in 10,000 people.
- Stomach problems – severe pain in your stomach, with or without diarrhoea (whether it has blood in it or not), feeling - Sick and being sick (nausea and vomiting) – these can be signs of pancreatitis
- The whites of your eyes turn yellow, or your skin turns yellow although this may be less obvious on brown or black skin this can be a sign of liver problems.

INTERACTIONS

- Antibiotics (eg) Clarithromycin, Erythromycin.
- Antifungals (eg) Ketoconazole, Itraconazole, Voriconazole.
- Immunosuppressants (eg) Cyclosporine, Tacrolimus.
- PDE5 Inhibitors (eg) Sildenafil (Vi**ra), Tadenafil.
- Cholesterol medication (eg) Simvastatin.

SUMMARY

Amlodipine is a calcium channel blocker used to treat hypertension and angina.

01/06/2025

WHAT IS DOXYCYCLINE ?

Doxycycline is a broad-spectrum antibiotic synthetically derived from oxytetracycline. It is a second-generation tetracycline that was first discovered in 1967. Second-generation tetracyclines exhibit lesser toxicity than first-generation tetracyclines. Doxycycline is used to treat a wide variety of gram-positive and gram-negative bacterial infections. It is also used to treat acne and malaria.

MECHANISM OF ACTION

Protein synthesis is essential for survival and functioning of cells, including bacteria.7 Doxycycline inhibits bacterial protein synthesis by allosterically binding to the 30S prokaryotic ribosomal subunit.8,11 The drug blocks the association charged aminoacyl-tRNA (aa-tRNA) with the ribosomal A site, which is the acceptor site on the mRNA-ribosome complex. Doxycycline ultimately impedes the elongation phase of protein synthesis and halts the production of essential proteins for bacterial survival and functioning

DOSING INFORMATION

Adults—100 milligrams (mg) every 12 hours on the first day, then 100 mg once a day or 50 to 100 mg every 12 hours.
Children 8 years of age or older weighing 45 kilograms (kg) or more—100 mg every 12 hours on the first day, then 100 mg once a day or 50 to 100 mg every 12 hours.

INDICATION /USES

Doxycycline is used for bacterial infections, including acne, rosacea, urinary and respiratory tract infections, eye infections, gum disease, gonorrhea, chlamydia, and syphilis.

SIDE EFFECTS

Common doxycycline side effects
The most common doxycycline side effects include nausea and vomiting, upset stomach, loss of appetite, mild diarrhea, skin rash or itching, darkened skin color, and vaginal itching or discharge.
Other serious doxycycline side effects may occur. Call your doctor at once if you have:

- Severe stomach pain, diarrhea that is watery or bloody;
- Throat irritation, trouble swallowing;
- Chest pain, irregular heart rhythm, feeling short of breath;
- Little or no urination;
- Low white blood cell counts - fever, chills, swollen glands, body aches, weakness, pale skin, easy bruising or bleeding;

CONTRA-INDICATIONS

Doxycycline is contra-indicated to
- Have ever had an allergic reaction to doxycycline or any other medicine.
- Have kidney or liver problems.
- Have an inflamed food pipe (oesophagitis)
- Have lupus, an autoimmune disease.
- Have myasthenia gravis, a condition that causes severe muscle weakness.
- Pregnant or breastfeeding

INTERACTIONS

Doxycycline may interact with the following drugs:
- Barbiturates
- Herbs
- Vitamins
- Penicillin antibiotics
- Antacids
- Anti- epilepsy
- Hormonal drugs
- Warfarin.

31/05/2025

WHAT IS ARTEMETHER INJECTION?

Artemether is an antimalarial agent used to treat acute uncomplicated malaria. It is administered in combination with lumefantrine for improved efficacy. This combination therapy exerts its effects against the erythrocytic stages of Plasmodium spp. and may be used to treat infections caused by P. falciparum and unidentified Plasmodium species, including infections acquired in chloroquine-resistant areas.

MECHANISM OF ACTION

Involves an interaction with ferriprotoporphyrin IX (“heme”), or ferrous ions, in the acidic parasite food vacuole, which results in the generation of cytotoxic radical species.

The generally accepted mechanism of action of peroxide antimalarials involves interaction of the peroxide-containing drug with heme, a hemoglobin degradation byproduct, derived from proteolysis of hemoglobin. This interaction is believed to result in the formation of a range of potentially toxic oxygen and carbon-centered radicals.

INDICATION /USES

Indicated for the treatment of acute uncomplicated malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum, including malaria acquired in chloroquine-resistant areas. May also be used to treat uncomplicated malaria when the Plasmodium species has not been identified. Indicated for use in adults and children greater than 5 kg.

DOSING INFORMATION

Child and adult:
3.2 mg/kg by IM injection on the first day followed by 1.6 mg/kg once daily

SIDE EFFECTS

The side effects of artemether injection include:
Headache.
Dizziness.
Weakness.
Muscle or joint pain.
Tiredness.
Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep.
Vomiting.
Loss of appetite.

INTERACTIONS

Artemether Injection may interect with so many drugs such as:
Anti neoplasm (Cancers)
Anti convulsants
Clarithromycin
Ciprofloxacin
Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)

27/05/2025

WHAT IS LORATADINE?

Loratadine is an antihistamine that reduces the effects of natural chemical histamine in the body. Histamine can produce symptoms of sneezing, itching, watery eyes, and runny nose.

Loratadine is used to treat sneezing, runny nose, watery eyes, hives, skin rash, hay fever, itching, and other cold or allergy symptoms.

MECHANISM OF ACTION

At high concentrations, second-generation antihistamines such as loratadine can inhibit histamine release from mast cells and basophils, thereby reducing ICAM-1 expression in epithelial cells and inhibiting type 1 hypersensitivity reactions (eg, hay fever, urticaria, pruritus, edema)

INDICATION / USES

Loratadine is used to treat allergy symptoms, including runny or stuffy nose, sneezing, watery eyes, and itching of the eyes, nose or throat. This medicine is available as an over-the-counter (OTC) product. This product is available in the following dosage forms: Tablet, Chewable.

DOSING INFORMATION

Usual Adult Dose for Allergic Rhinitis:
10 mg orally once a day
-Maximum dose: 10 mg/day

Usual Adult Dose for Urticaria:
10 mg orally once a day
-Maximum dose: 10 mg/day

Usual Pediatric Dose for Allergic Rhinitis:
2 to 5 years: 5 mg orally once a day
-Maximum dose: 5 mg/day

6 years and older: 10 mg orally once a day
-Maximum dose: 10 mg/day

Usual Pediatric Dose for Urticaria:
2 to 5 years: 5 mg orally once a day
-Maximum dose: 5 mg/day

6 years and older: 10 mg orally once a day
-Maximum dose: 10 mg/day

SIDE EFFECTS

- Fast or uneven heart rate;
- Severe headache
- light-headed feeling, like you might pass out;

Common loratadine side effects may include:
- Headache
- Feeling tired or drowsy
- Stomach pain, vomiting;
- Dry mouth
- Feeeling nervous or
- Hyperactive.

INTERACTIONS

Loratadine may interact with the following
- Anti- retrovirals
- Anti-fungals
- Amiodarone
- Celecoxib
- Erythromycin
- Diltiazem
- Clarithromycin
- Hyaluronidase

15/05/2025

What is DICLOFENAC?

Diclofenac is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID). This medicine works by reducing substances in the body that cause pain and inflammation.

Diclofenac is used to treat mild to moderate pain, or signs and symptoms of osteoarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis. Voltaren is also indicated for the treatment of ankylosing spondylitis. The Cataflam brand of this medicine is also used to treat menstrual cramps.

Diclofenac reduces inflammation and by extension reduces nociceptive pain and combats fever.Label,17 It also increases the risk of developing a gastrointestinal ulcer by inhibiting the production of protective mucus in the stomach.

MECHANISM OF ACTION

Diclofenac inhibits cyclooxygenase-1 and -2, the enzymes responsible for production of prostaglandin (PG) G2 which is the precursor to other inflammatory mediators.

INDICATION/USES

What is diclofenac used for?
Diclofenac is commonly used to treat pain that does not last for long periods, as well as redness, swelling, and inflammation caused by several conditions including arthritis and menstrual cramps.
NB
Diclofenac is also used to treat migraines.
Diclofenac may also be used for other conditions as determined by your healthcare provider.

How does diclofenac work (mechanism of action)?
Diclofenac works by blocking certain substances in the body (prostaglandins) that cause pain and inflammation.

DOSAGE FORMS AND STRENGTH

Tabs 50mg/single-dose packet for oral solution
18 mg, 25 mg, 35 mg oral capsules
50 mg oral tablets
25 mg, 50 mg, 75 mg delayed-release oral tablets
100 mg extended-release oral tablets
Injection 75mg

SIDE EFFECTS

The most common side effects of diclofenac are listed below.

-Peptic ulceration
-Stomach pain or upset stomach
-Constipation or diarrhea
-Nausea or vomiting
-Dizziness
-Drowsiness
-Sweating
-Breathing problems or wheezing
-Racing heart.

INTERACTION

-A blood thinner, such as warfarin, which is a medicine used to treat or prevent blood clots
-An antiplatelet medicine, such as clopidogrel (Plavix), ticagrelor (Brilinta), aspirin/dipyridamole, or cilostazol, which is a medicine used to prevent blood clots
-A nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), such as ibuprofen, naproxen, and others, which is in many prescription and OTC products for pain, swelling, and fever
-A corticosteroid, such as dexamethasone, methylprednisolone, or prednisone, which is a medicine for certain inflammatory conditions
-Aspirin, which is in many prescription and OTC products, including those for pain, swelling, and fever
-A salicylate, such as diflunisal or salsalate, which is a medicine used for osteoarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis
-A selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) or serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI), which is a medicine commonly used for anxiety and depression
An angiotensin-converting enzyme - - (ACE) inhibitor, such as enalapril or lisinopril, which is a medicine for high blood pressure, heart failure, and certain kidney problems
-An angiotensin II receptor blocker (ARB), such as losartan or valsartan, which is a medicine for high blood pressure, heart failure, and other heart conditions
-A beta-blocker, such as metoprolol (Lopressor, Toprol XL, and others), atenolol (Tenormin), or propranolol (Inderal LA, Innopran XL), which is a medicine that may be used for certain heart conditions or to reduce blood pressure
-A diuretic, also called a water pill, which is a medicine used to reduce edema (fluid retention) and blood pressure
-Digoxin (Lanoxin), which is a medicine used to treat irregular heartbeat and some types of heart failure
-Lithium, which is a medicine for certain mental health conditions
-Methotrexate (Trexall and others), which is a medicine commonly used for rheumatoid arthritis or certain types of cancer
-Cyclosporine: which is a medicine that suppresses your immune system
-Pemetrexed: which is a medicine to treat certain cancers
-Voriconazole (Vfend), which is a medicine used for fungal infections
-Rifampin (Rifadin), which is a medicine commonly used to treat an infection called tuberculosis
This may not be a complete list of medicines that can interact with diclofenac. Always check with your healthcare provider

14/05/2025

What is PUD?

Peptic ulcers are open sores on the inner lining of the stomach and the upper part of the small intestine. The most common symptom of a peptic ulcer is stomach pain.

Peptic ulcers include:

Gastric ulcers, which appear on the inside of the stomach.
Duodenal ulcers, which appear on the inside of the upper part of the small intestine, called the duodenum.

SIGN AND SYMPTOMS

Many people with peptic ulcers don't have symptoms. If there are symptoms, they may include:

Dull or burning stomach pain. For some people, pain may be worse between meals and at night. For others, it may be worse after eating.

- Feeling of fullness or bloating.
- Belching.
- Heartburn.
- Nausea.

Peptic ulcers can cause bleeding from the ulcer. Then symptoms might include:

- Vomiting blood, which may appear red or black.
- Having dark blood in stools, or stools that are black or tarry.
- Feeling dizzy or fainting.

CAUSES

Peptic ulcers happen when acid in the organs that food travels through, called the digestive tract, eats away at the inner surface of the stomach or small intestine. The acid can create a painful open sore that may bleed.

The main causative agents are:
- Helicobacter pylori
- Regular use of certain pain relievers

DIAGNOSIS

To detect an ulcer, your healthcare professional may first take a medical history and do a physical exam. You also may need tests, such as:

- Laboratory H pylori test
- Endoscopy
- Upper gastrointestinal series

TREATMENT

Treatment for peptic ulcers involves killing the H. pylori germ, if needed. Treatment also might involve stopping NSAIDs or lowering the amount, if possible, and taking medicine to help the ulcer heal.

- Antibiotics to kill H. pylori.
e.g Amoxycillin, clarithromycin, Levofloxacin, Metronidazole, Tinidazole.

- PPIs Proton pump inhibitors medicine that blocks acid
e.g Omeprazole, Rabeprazole, Esomeprazole, Fantoprazole.

- H2 receptor inhibitors medicine that reduces stomach acid.
e.g Cimetidine, Ranitidine, Famotidine, Nizatidine.

- Antacids that counter the effects of stomach acid.
e.g Magnessium trislicate, Alminium hydroxide ASAD®, GAVISCON®, POLYGEL®, AVROCID®.

Lifestyle and home remedies
- Switch pain relivers
- Control stress
- Don't smoke
- Avoid alcohol

13/05/2025

What are NSAIDs?

The immune system responds to infection and injury with inflammation. Noticeable signs include heat, skin discoloration, swelling, and pain.

The body receives pain signals from nerve receptors when inflammation occurs. These signals result from complex responses and interactions between cells and chemicals in the body.

Non Steroidal Anti Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) : are group of drugs used in the management of pain particularly inflammatory pain, fever and analgesia.

Anti-inflammatory drugs reduce inflammationTrusted Source, minimizing its direct effect on pain-nerve stimulation and sensitivity, as well as decreasing the resulting inflammatory heat and swelling. In this way, NSAIDs help relieve pain.

# EXAMPLES OF NSAIDs

Over-the-counter (OTC) NSAIDs include:

Ibuprofen
Aspirin

Some stronger forms of ibuprofen are also available by prescription. Other prescription NSAIDs include:

-Mifenamic acid
-Piroxicam
-Etodolac
-Indomethacin
-Nabumeton
-Diclofenac
-Naproxen

# INDICATION/USES

NSAIDs are a broad group of non-opioid analgesic drugs. Although their chemical structures are different, they have several effects in common:

-Reducing high temperature and fever
-Decreasing inflammation
-Relieving pain

NSAIDs work by slowing trusted source the formation of prostaglandins, which play an important role in the body’s inflammatory response. The body, therefore, produces more of these substances when an injury occurs. Reducing the number of prostaglandins at the site of damaged tissue lowers inflammation.

NSAIDs also block an enzyme called cyclooxygenase (COX), which supports the reactions that produce prostaglandins.

By blocking COX, NSAIDs interfere with the function of platelets — cells in the blood that play a crucial role in blood clotting. As a result, these medications have anti-clotting properties.

In the case of aspirin, this property may help prevent the blocked arteries that can cause heart attack or stroke.

# SIDE EFFECTS OF NSAIDs and long-term safety

Anyone who takes NSAIDs may experience some side effects.

Serious side effects are less common than mild ones, and the likelihood of any side effect varies among individuals. People taking drugs in high dosages or over a more extended term are more likely to have side effects.

Prescription NSAIDs are generally more effective in relieving pain, particularly intense pain, than OTC NSAIDs. However, they are more likely to cause side effects.

Less severe side effects that some people experience include:

indigestion and other gut complaints

headaches

dizziness

drowsiness

Rare adverse events associated with NSAIDs include problems with:

fluid retention

the kidneys

the liver

the heart and circulation

NSAIDs can also increase blood pressureTrusted Source. The risk of heart attack and stroke may be higher for a person who takes NSAIDs, unless they take aspirin. However, this is usually more of a concern for people with other risk factors for heart problems.

Peptic ulcers and gastrointestinal bleeding

Long-term or high dose use of NSAIDs can lead to ulcers developingTrusted Source in the gut, known as peptic ulcers. This occurs because prostaglandins protect the stomach lining by helping it produce mucus. By reducing the number of prostaglandins in the body, NSAIDs leave the stomach open to the effects of stomach acid.

People who take NSAIDs for a long time or at high dosages should consult their doctor about ulcer prevention. One option is to take separate drugs that reduce acid production in the stomach. Using a different type of pain reliever is another option.

27/03/2025

What is omeprazole?

Omeprazole is used to treat excess stomach acid in conditions such as non cancerous stomach ulcers, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), active duodenal ulcer, Zollinger-Ellison syndrome and erosive esophagitis. Omeprazole works by blocking gastric acid production and is from the group of medicines called proton pump inhibitors.

Omeprazole may also be given together with antibiotics to treat gastric ulcer caused by infection with Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori).

Over-the-counter (OTC) omeprazole is used in adults to help control heartburn that occurs 2 or more days per week. The OTC brand must be taken as a course on a regular basis for 14 days in a row.

How should I take omeprazole?

Take omeprazole exactly as directed on the label, or as prescribed by your doctor. Follow all directions on your prescription label and read all medication guides or instruction sheets.

Use Prilosec OTC (over-the-counter) exactly as directed on the label, or as prescribed by your doctor.

Omeprazole side effects

Get emergency medical help if you have signs of an allergic reaction to omeprazole: hives; difficulty breathing; swelling of your face, lips, tongue, or throat.

Stop using this medicine and call your doctor at once if you have:

severe stomach pain, diarrhea that is watery or bloody;
new or unusual pain in your wrist, thigh, hip, or back;
seizure (convulsions);
kidney problems - fever, rash, nausea, loss of appetite, joint pain, urinating less than usual, blood in your urine, weight gain.

low magnesium - dizziness, irregular heartbeats, feeling jittery, muscle cramps, muscle spasms, cough or choking feeling; or

new or worsening symptoms of lupus - joint pain, and a skin rash on your cheeks or arms that worsens in sunlight.

Common side effects of omeprazole may include:

cold symptoms such as stuffy nose, sneezing, sore throat (especially in children);

fever (especially in children);
stomach pain, gas;
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea; or
headache.

09/02/2025

Happiness is largely a matter of choice, there is nothing and no one that can take away your happiness without your permission. Being miserable or happy is a matter of choice. I chose happiness, I chose cheerfulness.