PHARM K., No79 Nagogo street KD. (2025)

17/08/2025

Malaria Parasite (MP) Test:

1. Objective

To detect the presence of Plasmodium species (malaria parasite) in human blood for the diagnosis of malaria.

2. Principle

Malaria parasite detection is commonly done using peripheral blood smear microscopy (thick and thin smears).

Thick smear → more sensitive, used to detect the presence of parasites.

Thin smear → helps in species identification (P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. malariae, P. ovale).

Sometimes Rapid Diagnostic Tests (RDTs) are used, which detect specific Plasmodium antigens (e.g., HRP2, pLDH) using immunochromatography.

3. Materials

Fresh capillary or venous blood

Clean glass slides

Micropipette or capillary tube

Giemsa / Leishman / Field’s stain

Immersion oil

Microscope (100x oil immersion lens)

Sterile lancet, cotton, alcohol swab

4. Procedure

For Blood Smear Method:

1. Collect finger-prick blood using a sterile lancet.

2. Prepare thin smear (spread blood thinly across slide) and thick smear (a drop spread in a circular area).

3. Air dry both smears.

4. Fix thin smear with methanol; leave thick smear unfixed.

5. Stain both smears with Giemsa stain for 20–30 minutes.

6. Wash gently with buffered water and air dry.

7. Examine under microscope with 100x oil immersion lens.

5. Result:

Positive: Malaria parasites (ring forms, trophozoites, gametocytes, schizonts) visible inside or outside red blood cells.

Negative: No parasites detected in 200–300 fields.

Example:
Plasmodium falciparum → multiple rings per RBC, banana-shaped gametocytes.
Plasmodium vivax → enlarged RBCs, amoeboid trophozoites.

6. Uses

To confirm or rule out malaria infection.

To identify Plasmodium species and parasite load.

Helps in treatment decisions and monitoring response.

7. Conclusion

The Malaria Parasite test (by smear microscopy or RDT) is a simple, rapid, and reliable diagnostic tool to detect malaria, differentiate species, and guide effective therapy.

16/08/2025

💊 Drug Spotlight : Loratadine

📛Tired of sneezing, a runny nose, and itchy eyes? Loratadine is a common medicine that can help you find relief!
Here’s what you need to know:

🩸Loratadine is an antihistamine that works by blocking a chemical in your body that causes allergy symptoms. It helps with issues like sneezing, a runny nose, watery eyes, and skin rashes from things like pollen, dust, or pet fur.

🔗 Non-Drowsy: Unlike older allergy medications, Loratadine is typically non-drowsy, so you can get through your day without feeling sleepy.

🔗How to Take It Safely: Always follow the instructions from your pharmacist. Taking more won't make it work faster and can lead to side effects like headaches or dizziness.

🔗If you have seasonal allergies, start taking it a little before allergy season begins to help reduce your symptoms from the get-go.

🔗Takeaway: Loratadine can help you control your allergy symptoms and live more comfortably, but remember, it doesn’t cure allergies.

15/08/2025

Lab normal values ✅
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11/08/2025

Widal Test

1. Objective:

The objective of the Widal test was to detect antibodies (agglutinins) against the Salmonella typhi and Salmonella paratyphi antigens in a patient’s serum, helping diagnose enteric (typhoid) fever.

2. Principle:

The test was based on agglutination reaction between specific Salmonella antigens and corresponding antibodies in the patient’s serum. If antibodies were present, they reacted with the antigens to form visible clumps.

3. Materials:

Patient's serum (collected in a plain tube)

Widal antigen suspensions:

S. typhi O (somatic) antigen

S. typhi H (flagellar) antigen

S. paratyphi A and B H antigens

Glass slide or test tubes

Pipettes and mixing sticks

Physiological saline

Water bath/incubator (if tube method)

Timer and light source

4. Procedure:

Slide Method (Rapid):

1. A drop of patient serum was placed on a glass slide.

2. Equal drops of each Widal antigen were added.

3. The mixture was rotated gently for 1 minute.

4. Agglutination was observed visually.

Tube Method (Quantitative):

1. Serum was serially diluted in test tubes.

2. Equal volumes of antigen suspension were added.

3. Tubes were incubated at 37°C for 16–20 hours.

4. Agglutination was read visually and the antibody titer was recorded.

5. Result:

Positive: Agglutination observed; a titer of ≥1:80 or fourfold rise in paired samples was considered significant.

Negative: No visible agglutination.

6. Uses:

It was used to aid in the diagnosis of typhoid and paratyphoid fever.

Helped monitor disease progression or response to treatment.

7. Consultation:

Positive results prompted referral to a physician or infectious disease specialist. Antibiotic therapy was started based on clinical correlation, and blood culture was advised for confirmation.

09/08/2025

overview of Pharmacokinetics (PK) and Pharmacodynamics (PD)

1. Pharmacokinetics (PK)
"What the body does to the drug" – describes absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME).

Step Key Points in Adults Clinical Implications
Absorption • Usually via oral, IV, IM, SC, transdermal, inhalation, etc.
• Influenced by gastric pH (more acidic in adults than in elderly), motility, food-drug interactions. • Antacids can reduce absorption of some drugs (e.g., tetracyclines).
• Food can slow absorption but not always bioavailability.
Distribution • Dependent on plasma protein binding (albumin), body fat %, water content.
• Lipid-soluble drugs distribute more into fat; water-soluble drugs into plasma & tissues. • Hypoalbuminemia ↑ free drug levels (e.g., warfarin toxicity).
• Obesity affects volume of distribution for lipophilic drugs.
Metabolism • Mostly in liver via Phase I (oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis – CYP450 enzymes) and Phase II (conjugation – glucuronidation, sulfation, acetylation). • CYP inducers (e.g., rifampicin) ↑ drug clearance.
• CYP inhibitors (e.g., erythromycin) ↑ drug levels.
Excretion • Mainly renal (glomerular filtration, tubular secretion, reabsorption), some biliary/f***l.
• Renal function declines with age; less so in healthy adults under 60. • Renal dose adjustment required for aminoglycosides, digoxin, etc.

2. Pharmacodynamics (PD)
"What the drug does to the body" – describes drug–receptor interactions, dose–response, and therapeutic/toxic effects.

Concept Description Clinical Example
Receptor binding Drug binds to receptors (agonist, partial agonist, antagonist). β-agonist → ↑ heart rate; β-blocker → ↓ heart rate.
Dose–response relationship As dose ↑, effect ↑ until maximal efficacy (Emax). Morphine: higher doses ↑ analgesia until plateau.
Potency vs. Efficacy Potency: how much drug needed for effect (lower dose = higher potency).
Efficacy: maximum effect achievable. Fentanyl (high potency) vs. morphine (lower potency).
Therapeutic index (TI) Ratio between toxic dose and effective dose.
Narrow TI = requires close monitoring. Warfarin, lithium, digoxin.
Tolerance & resistance Tolerance: reduced response over time.
Resistance: loss of drug effect due to biological adaptation. Tolerance: opioids.
Resistance: antibiotics.

3. PK–PD Integration in Adults
Onset of action: Dependent on absorption rate & distribution.

Peak effect: Linked to drug reaching adequate receptor occupancy.

Duration of action: Controlled by metabolism & elimination rate.

Steady state: Usually reached after ~4–5 half-lives in continuous dosing.

4. Adult-Specific Considerations
Liver disease → ↓ metabolism → risk of toxicity.

Kidney disease → ↓ clearance → adjust dose.

Drug–drug interactions → especially with polypharmacy.

Genetic polymorphisms in CYP450 enzymes → variable responses.

Obesity or low body weight → altered volume of distribution.

09/08/2025

Kidney Function Test (KFT)

1. Objective

The objective was to evaluate the functional status of the kidneys by measuring various biochemical parameters in the blood and urine.

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2. Principle

The principle was based on detecting and quantifying waste products (such as urea, creatinine, and uric acid) and electrolytes in the blood. Elevated or decreased levels indicated impaired kidney filtration, reabsorption, or excretion.

---

3. Materials

Patient’s blood sample (serum or plasma)

Test tubes

Centrifuge

Biochemistry analyzer or colorimeter

Reagents for:

Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) estimation

Serum Creatinine estimation

Uric Acid estimation

Electrolytes (Na⁺, K⁺, Cl⁻, HCO₃⁻) measurement

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4. Procedure (Microscopic observation not applicable, biochemical method used)

1. The patient’s blood sample was collected and allowed to clot (for serum) or kept in anticoagulant tube (for plasma).

2. The sample was centrifuged to separate serum/plasma.

3. Specific biochemical methods were performed:

Urea: Diacetyl monoxime or enzymatic urease method.

Creatinine: Jaffe’s reaction with alkaline picrate.

Uric acid: Uricase method.

Electrolytes: Ion-selective electrode method.

4. The absorbance or readings were taken on a biochemistry analyzer.

5. Results were compared with reference ranges.

---

5. Result

Normal Range (Adult):

Urea: 15–40 mg/dL

Creatinine: 0.6–1.2 mg/dL

Uric Acid: 3.5–7.2 mg/dL (male), 2.6–6.0 mg/dL (female)

Sodium: 135–145 mmol/L

Potassium: 3.5–5.0 mmol/L

Chloride: 98–107 mmol/L

Interpretation:

Increased values indicated possible renal impairment, dehydration, or high protein breakdown.

Decreased values indicated liver disease, malnutrition, or overhydration.

---

6. Uses

It was used to detect acute or chronic kidney disease.

It helped monitor patients with known renal disorders.

It was part of routine health check-ups for at-risk individuals (diabetes, hypertension).

It guided treatment in patients receiving nephrotoxic drugs.

07/08/2025

💊 **Drug vs Medicine — What’s the Difference?**

Let’s clear up the confusion — they're not quite the same!

✅ **Drug**

A **drug** is the **main active ingredient** —
👉 It’s the chemical that actually treats the illness or relieves symptoms.
🧠 Think of it as the "hero" doing the job!

✅ **Medicine**

A **medicine** =
🧪 Drug (the active ingredient)
➕
✨ Extra ingredients (called **excipients**) that help:
* Shape it into a pill, liquid, cream, etc.
* Make it taste better or work better
* Preserve it and package it

✅ **Drug Product / Finished Medicine**

This is the **final product** you buy from a pharmacy:
* Fully packaged
* Measured in the right dose
* Safe and ready to use

🧴 Examples: A paracetamol tablet, an insulin injection, or an asthma inhaler.

🧠 In short:
* **Drug** = The active fighter
* **Medicine** = Drug + helping ingredients
* **Drug Product** = Final, ready-to-use form

06/08/2025

Stool Culture Test
1. Objective:
The objective of the stool culture test was to isolate and identify pathogenic bacteria in a patient's f***l sample, particularly those causing gastrointestinal infections.
________________________________________
2. Principle:
The test was based on the cultivation of stool specimens on selective and differential media to promote the growth of enteric pathogens while inhibiting normal flora. Biochemical and serological methods were then used to identify specific organisms.
________________________________________
3. Materials:
• Fresh stool sample
• Sterile stool collection container
• Inoculating loop
• Culture media: MacConkey agar, XLD agar, SS agar, Selenite F broth
• Incubator (35–37°C)
• Biochemical test kits (TSI, SIM, Citrate, Urease, etc.)
• Gram staining reagents
• PPE (gloves, mask, lab coat)
________________________________________
4. Procedure (Microbiological):
1. The stool sample was collected in a sterile container and transported promptly to the lab.
2. Using an inoculating loop, a portion of the stool was streaked onto MacConkey, XLD, and SS agar plates.
3. The sample was also inoculated into Selenite F broth for enrichment.
4. All media were incubated at 37°C for 18–24 hours.
5. After incubation, plates were examined for colony morphology.
6. Suspected colonies were further identified using biochemical tests and Gram staining.
7. If required, serological tests were performed for confirmation (e.g., Salmonella and Shigella serotyping).
________________________________________
5. Result:
• Normal: No pathogenic organisms isolated; only normal gut flora observed.
• Abnormal: Growth of enteric pathogens like Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., E. coli (EHEC, ETEC), Campylobacter spp., or Vibrio cholerae.
________________________________________
6. Uses:
• Diagnosed causes of diarrhea, dysentery, or food poisoning
• Identified antibiotic-resistant enteric bacteria
• Traced outbreaks of enteric infections
• Assisted in publ

06/08/2025

A*O (Antistreptolysin O) Test

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1. Objective:

The objective of the A*O test was to detect antibodies produced against streptolysin O, an exotoxin released by Streptococcus pyogenes, to confirm recent streptococcal infection.

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2. Principle:

The test was based on the principle of agglutination. Latex particles coated with streptolysin O antigens reacted with A*O antibodies present in the patient’s serum, forming visible clumps (agglutination).

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3. Materials:

A*O latex reagent

Positive and negative control

Test card or glass slide

Micropipette or dropper

Mixing stick

Serum sample

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4. Procedure (Microscopic not required):

1. The test card was placed on a flat surface.

2. One drop of the patient’s serum was added to a circle on the card.

3. One drop of A*O latex reagent was added to the same spot.

4. The mixture was stirred with a mixing stick and spread evenly.

5. The card was rocked gently for 2 minutes.

6. Agglutination was observed visually.

---

5. Result:

Positive: Visible agglutination indicated the presence of A*O antibodies.

Negative: No agglutination indicated absence or low level of A*O antibodies.

---

6. Uses:

Diagnosed recent Streptococcus pyogenes infection.

Supported diagnosis of rheumatic fever or post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis.

Monitored progression or resolution of streptococcal infections.

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7. Consultation:

A positive A*O test suggested a recent streptococcal infection. Clinical correlation and further evaluation by a physician were recommended, especially if complications like rheumatic fever or kidney involvement were suspected.

06/08/2025

Stool Fat Test (Sudan Stain Method)
1. Objective:
The objective of the test was to detect the presence of excess fat in stool, aiding in the diagnosis of malabsorption syndromes such as steatorrhea.
Read more : https://earthofstory1.blogspot.com/2025/08/antibiotic-sensitivity-test.html
2. Principle:
The test was based on the principle that neutral fats and fatty acids in stool could be stained using Sudan III or Sudan IV dye, which selectively bound to lipid droplets, coloring them orange-red under the microscope.
________________________________________
3. Materials:
• Fresh stool sample
• Sudan III or Sudan IV stain
• Glass slides and coverslips
• Dropper or spatula
• Distilled water or 95% ethanol (for dilution)
• Light microscope
• Gloves and lab coat
________________________________________
4. Procedure (Microscopic):
1. A small portion of stool was placed on a glass slide.
2. A few drops of 95% ethanol were added to emulsify the sample.
3. 1-2 drops of Sudan III or IV stain were added.
4. A coverslip was placed over the mixture.
5. The slide was examined under the microscope using low and high power objectives.
6. Fat globules appeared as orange-red droplets if present in excess.
________________________________________
5. Result:
• Positive: Numerous large orange-red fat droplets visible, indicating excessive fat (e.g., in steatorrhea).
• Negative: Few or no stained fat droplets.
________________________________________
6. Uses:
• To diagnose fat malabsorption disorders (e.g., celiac disease, chronic pancreatitis, cystic fibrosis)
• To confirm steatorrhea
• To monitor effectiveness of enzymatic therapy in malabsorption treatment
________________________________________
7. Consultation:
The result was interpreted by a physician in conjunction with clinical signs like greasy, foul-smelling stool and other laboratory findings. A positive result often required further GI investigation.

05/08/2025

Entamoeba histolytica Antigen Test
1. Objective
The objective of the test was to detect the presence of specific Entamoeba histolytica antigen in stool specimens, assisting in the diagnosis of amoebic dysentery and intestinal amoebiasis.
________________________________________
2. Principle
The test was based on the detection of E. histolytica-specific antigens using monoclonal antibodies through either an immunochromatographic (rapid card) method or ELISA. If antigens were present in the stool, they reacted with labeled antibodies to form a visible signal or color change.
________________________________________
3. Materials
• Fresh stool sample
• E. histolytica antigen test kit (ELISA or rapid card)
• Extraction buffer
• Micropipettes or dropper
• Gloves and sterile collection cup
• Incubator (for ELISA method)
• ELISA plate reader (if applicable)
Read more test : https://earthofstory1.blogspot.com/2025/07/antiphospholipid-antibody-test-eg-drvvt.html
4. Procedure (Rapid Immunochromatographic Test)
1. A portion of the stool sample was mixed with the extraction buffer.
2. Several drops of the prepared mixture were added to the sample well of the test cassette.
3. The test cassette was allowed to sit at room temperature for 10–15 minutes.
4. The presence of a test line along with a control line indicated a positive result.
________________________________________
5. Result (Example)
• Control line only: Negative
• Control + Test line: Positive
• No control line: Invalid
Example:
• Result: Positive
• Interpretation: Entamoeba histolytica antigen detected in stool — confirms amoebic infection.
________________________________________
6. Uses
• Diagnosed intestinal amoebiasis and amoebic dysentery
• Differentiated between pathogenic E. histolytica and non-pathogenic E. dispar (unlike microscopy)
• Aided in treatment decisions in patients with diarrhea and abdominal pain
________________________________________
7. Conclusion
The Entamoeba histolytica antigen test was a

04/08/2025

Introduction to Transcription in Eukaryotes

Transcription is the process through which DNA is copied into RNA by the enzyme RNA polymerase. In prokaryotes, a single RNA polymerase is responsible for transcribing all types of RNA—mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA. However, eukaryotes are more complex and require multiple RNA polymerases to carry out transcription of various RNA molecules. This division of labor allows for more precise regulation and compartmentalization of gene expression. In eukaryotic cells, transcription occurs within the nucleus and involves three major types of RNA polymerases: RNA polymerase I, RNA polymerase II, and RNA polymerase III. Additionally, plants have RNA polymerase IV and V involved in siRNA-mediated gene silencing pathways.

The specific function of each RNA polymerase is critical to understanding how different RNA molecules are synthesized in a regulated manner. The focus of this discussion is on the transcription of 5S rRNA, a component of the large subunit of ribosomes, and how RNA polymerase III is uniquely suited for this task.

Overview of Eukaryotic RNA Polymerases

Let’s begin by understanding the roles of the three primary RNA polymerases found in all eukaryotes:

RNA Polymerase I is responsible for synthesizing a single large precursor RNA that is later processed into the 28S, 18S, and 5.8S rRNAs. This transcription activity takes place in the nucleolus.

RNA Polymerase II synthesizes all messenger RNAs (mRNAs), which encode proteins. It also transcribes most of the small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs). RNA Pol II activity occurs in the nucleoplasm.

RNA Polymerase III is tasked with synthesizing small structural RNAs including transfer RNAs (tRNAs), 5S ribosomal RNA (rRNA), U6 snRNA, and other small non-coding RNAs. It also operates in the nucleoplasm but distinct from the locations and functions of RNA Pol I and II.

What is 5S rRNA?

The ribosome, the molecular machine responsible for protein synthesis, is composed o

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17/08/2025

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