PHARM K., No79 Nagogo Street KD, Wuse II (2025)

11/10/2025

🔑 Genotype test
This shows if you carry sickle cell traits (AA, AS, SS). Two people with AS or SS should avoid marrying to prevent having children with sickle cell disease.

🔑 Blood group test
Knowing your ABO and Rh type helps prevent pregnancy complications. For example, if a woman is Rh-negative and her partner Rh-positive, medical care is needed to protect future babies.

🔑 HIV test
Both partners should know their HIV status. Early detection helps with treatment and prevents transmission to each other or future children.

🔑 Hepatitis B & C tests
These viral infections can spread through s*x or contact with infected blood. Testing helps with early treatment or vaccination.

🔑 STD tests
Tests for infections like syphilis, gonorrhea, and chlamydia are important because they can cause infertility or affect unborn babies if untreated.

🔑 Fertility test
A semen analysis for men and hormone or pelvic scans for women can detect possible reproductive problems early.

🔑 Mental health check
Emotional and psychological well-being matter in marriage. It helps couples understand each other and seek help early if needed.

🔑 Blood sugar test
Checks for diabetes, which can affect fertility and overall health.

14/09/2025

https://www.facebook.com/100063710096887/posts/1415150810618575/

31/08/2025

Happy weekend🥱🥰
Follower

31/08/2025

High Vaginal Swab (HVS) Test
1. Objective
The objective of the HVS test was to collect and examine vaginal secretions in order to identify infective organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and parasites. It was performed to aid in the diagnosis of vaginal infections, s*xually transmitted infections (STIs), and abnormal vaginal discharge.
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2. Principle
The principle of the test was based on the microscopic examination and culture of vaginal secretions obtained with a sterile swab. Pathogens such as Candida albicans, Trichomonas vaginalis, and Neisseria gonorrhoeae could be detected directly by microscopy or after culture. The growth of organisms on selective media and their biochemical or staining characteristics confirmed the diagnosis.
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3. Materials
The following materials were used in the HVS test:
• Sterile high vaginal swab sticks with transport medium.
• Speculum and sterile gloves.
• Glass slides, cover slips, and pipettes.
• Normal saline and 10% potassium hydroxide (KOH).
• Culture media (e.g., Sabouraud’s agar, blood agar, chocolate agar).
• Gram staining reagents.
• Microscope and incubator.
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4. Procedure (Microscopic)
1. The patient was placed in lithotomy position and a sterile speculum was inserted.
2. A sterile swab was introduced high into the vaginal canal to collect secretions.
3. The swab was immediately placed into transport medium and sent to the laboratory.
4. A smear was prepared on a glass slide, mixed with a drop of saline, and examined under the microscope.
5. A second smear was treated with 10% KOH to detect fungal elements such as budding yeast and pseudohyphae.
6. Gram staining was performed to identify bacterial organisms.
7. The swab was also inoculated onto culture media and incubated at 37°C for 24–48 hours.
8. Growth and colony morphology were studied for final identification.
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5.

17/08/2025

Malaria Parasite (MP) Test:

1. Objective

To detect the presence of Plasmodium species (malaria parasite) in human blood for the diagnosis of malaria.

2. Principle

Malaria parasite detection is commonly done using peripheral blood smear microscopy (thick and thin smears).

Thick smear → more sensitive, used to detect the presence of parasites.

Thin smear → helps in species identification (P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. malariae, P. ovale).

Sometimes Rapid Diagnostic Tests (RDTs) are used, which detect specific Plasmodium antigens (e.g., HRP2, pLDH) using immunochromatography.

3. Materials

Fresh capillary or venous blood

Clean glass slides

Micropipette or capillary tube

Giemsa / Leishman / Field’s stain

Immersion oil

Microscope (100x oil immersion lens)

Sterile lancet, cotton, alcohol swab

4. Procedure

For Blood Smear Method:

1. Collect finger-prick blood using a sterile lancet.

2. Prepare thin smear (spread blood thinly across slide) and thick smear (a drop spread in a circular area).

3. Air dry both smears.

4. Fix thin smear with methanol; leave thick smear unfixed.

5. Stain both smears with Giemsa stain for 20–30 minutes.

6. Wash gently with buffered water and air dry.

7. Examine under microscope with 100x oil immersion lens.

5. Result:

Positive: Malaria parasites (ring forms, trophozoites, gametocytes, schizonts) visible inside or outside red blood cells.

Negative: No parasites detected in 200–300 fields.

Example:
Plasmodium falciparum → multiple rings per RBC, banana-shaped gametocytes.
Plasmodium vivax → enlarged RBCs, amoeboid trophozoites.

6. Uses

To confirm or rule out malaria infection.

To identify Plasmodium species and parasite load.

Helps in treatment decisions and monitoring response.

7. Conclusion

The Malaria Parasite test (by smear microscopy or RDT) is a simple, rapid, and reliable diagnostic tool to detect malaria, differentiate species, and guide effective therapy.

16/08/2025

💊 Drug Spotlight : Loratadine

📛Tired of sneezing, a runny nose, and itchy eyes? Loratadine is a common medicine that can help you find relief!
Here’s what you need to know:

🩸Loratadine is an antihistamine that works by blocking a chemical in your body that causes allergy symptoms. It helps with issues like sneezing, a runny nose, watery eyes, and skin rashes from things like pollen, dust, or pet fur.

🔗 Non-Drowsy: Unlike older allergy medications, Loratadine is typically non-drowsy, so you can get through your day without feeling sleepy.

🔗How to Take It Safely: Always follow the instructions from your pharmacist. Taking more won't make it work faster and can lead to side effects like headaches or dizziness.

🔗If you have seasonal allergies, start taking it a little before allergy season begins to help reduce your symptoms from the get-go.

🔗Takeaway: Loratadine can help you control your allergy symptoms and live more comfortably, but remember, it doesn’t cure allergies.

15/08/2025

Lab normal values ✅
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11/08/2025

Widal Test

1. Objective:

The objective of the Widal test was to detect antibodies (agglutinins) against the Salmonella typhi and Salmonella paratyphi antigens in a patient’s serum, helping diagnose enteric (typhoid) fever.

2. Principle:

The test was based on agglutination reaction between specific Salmonella antigens and corresponding antibodies in the patient’s serum. If antibodies were present, they reacted with the antigens to form visible clumps.

3. Materials:

Patient's serum (collected in a plain tube)

Widal antigen suspensions:

S. typhi O (somatic) antigen

S. typhi H (flagellar) antigen

S. paratyphi A and B H antigens

Glass slide or test tubes

Pipettes and mixing sticks

Physiological saline

Water bath/incubator (if tube method)

Timer and light source

4. Procedure:

Slide Method (Rapid):

1. A drop of patient serum was placed on a glass slide.

2. Equal drops of each Widal antigen were added.

3. The mixture was rotated gently for 1 minute.

4. Agglutination was observed visually.

Tube Method (Quantitative):

1. Serum was serially diluted in test tubes.

2. Equal volumes of antigen suspension were added.

3. Tubes were incubated at 37°C for 16–20 hours.

4. Agglutination was read visually and the antibody titer was recorded.

5. Result:

Positive: Agglutination observed; a titer of ≥1:80 or fourfold rise in paired samples was considered significant.

Negative: No visible agglutination.

6. Uses:

It was used to aid in the diagnosis of typhoid and paratyphoid fever.

Helped monitor disease progression or response to treatment.

7. Consultation:

Positive results prompted referral to a physician or infectious disease specialist. Antibiotic therapy was started based on clinical correlation, and blood culture was advised for confirmation.

09/08/2025

overview of Pharmacokinetics (PK) and Pharmacodynamics (PD)

1. Pharmacokinetics (PK)
"What the body does to the drug" – describes absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME).

Step Key Points in Adults Clinical Implications
Absorption • Usually via oral, IV, IM, SC, transdermal, inhalation, etc.
• Influenced by gastric pH (more acidic in adults than in elderly), motility, food-drug interactions. • Antacids can reduce absorption of some drugs (e.g., tetracyclines).
• Food can slow absorption but not always bioavailability.
Distribution • Dependent on plasma protein binding (albumin), body fat %, water content.
• Lipid-soluble drugs distribute more into fat; water-soluble drugs into plasma & tissues. • Hypoalbuminemia ↑ free drug levels (e.g., warfarin toxicity).
• Obesity affects volume of distribution for lipophilic drugs.
Metabolism • Mostly in liver via Phase I (oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis – CYP450 enzymes) and Phase II (conjugation – glucuronidation, sulfation, acetylation). • CYP inducers (e.g., rifampicin) ↑ drug clearance.
• CYP inhibitors (e.g., erythromycin) ↑ drug levels.
Excretion • Mainly renal (glomerular filtration, tubular secretion, reabsorption), some biliary/f***l.
• Renal function declines with age; less so in healthy adults under 60. • Renal dose adjustment required for aminoglycosides, digoxin, etc.

2. Pharmacodynamics (PD)
"What the drug does to the body" – describes drug–receptor interactions, dose–response, and therapeutic/toxic effects.

Concept Description Clinical Example
Receptor binding Drug binds to receptors (agonist, partial agonist, antagonist). β-agonist → ↑ heart rate; β-blocker → ↓ heart rate.
Dose–response relationship As dose ↑, effect ↑ until maximal efficacy (Emax). Morphine: higher doses ↑ analgesia until plateau.
Potency vs. Efficacy Potency: how much drug needed for effect (lower dose = higher potency).
Efficacy: maximum effect achievable. Fentanyl (high potency) vs. morphine (lower potency).
Therapeutic index (TI) Ratio between toxic dose and effective dose.
Narrow TI = requires close monitoring. Warfarin, lithium, digoxin.
Tolerance & resistance Tolerance: reduced response over time.
Resistance: loss of drug effect due to biological adaptation. Tolerance: opioids.
Resistance: antibiotics.

3. PK–PD Integration in Adults
Onset of action: Dependent on absorption rate & distribution.

Peak effect: Linked to drug reaching adequate receptor occupancy.

Duration of action: Controlled by metabolism & elimination rate.

Steady state: Usually reached after ~4–5 half-lives in continuous dosing.

4. Adult-Specific Considerations
Liver disease → ↓ metabolism → risk of toxicity.

Kidney disease → ↓ clearance → adjust dose.

Drug–drug interactions → especially with polypharmacy.

Genetic polymorphisms in CYP450 enzymes → variable responses.

Obesity or low body weight → altered volume of distribution.

09/08/2025

Kidney Function Test (KFT)

1. Objective

The objective was to evaluate the functional status of the kidneys by measuring various biochemical parameters in the blood and urine.

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2. Principle

The principle was based on detecting and quantifying waste products (such as urea, creatinine, and uric acid) and electrolytes in the blood. Elevated or decreased levels indicated impaired kidney filtration, reabsorption, or excretion.

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3. Materials

Patient’s blood sample (serum or plasma)

Test tubes

Centrifuge

Biochemistry analyzer or colorimeter

Reagents for:

Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) estimation

Serum Creatinine estimation

Uric Acid estimation

Electrolytes (Na⁺, K⁺, Cl⁻, HCO₃⁻) measurement

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4. Procedure (Microscopic observation not applicable, biochemical method used)

1. The patient’s blood sample was collected and allowed to clot (for serum) or kept in anticoagulant tube (for plasma).

2. The sample was centrifuged to separate serum/plasma.

3. Specific biochemical methods were performed:

Urea: Diacetyl monoxime or enzymatic urease method.

Creatinine: Jaffe’s reaction with alkaline picrate.

Uric acid: Uricase method.

Electrolytes: Ion-selective electrode method.

4. The absorbance or readings were taken on a biochemistry analyzer.

5. Results were compared with reference ranges.

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5. Result

Normal Range (Adult):

Urea: 15–40 mg/dL

Creatinine: 0.6–1.2 mg/dL

Uric Acid: 3.5–7.2 mg/dL (male), 2.6–6.0 mg/dL (female)

Sodium: 135–145 mmol/L

Potassium: 3.5–5.0 mmol/L

Chloride: 98–107 mmol/L

Interpretation:

Increased values indicated possible renal impairment, dehydration, or high protein breakdown.

Decreased values indicated liver disease, malnutrition, or overhydration.

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6. Uses

It was used to detect acute or chronic kidney disease.

It helped monitor patients with known renal disorders.

It was part of routine health check-ups for at-risk individuals (diabetes, hypertension).

It guided treatment in patients receiving nephrotoxic drugs.

07/08/2025

💊 **Drug vs Medicine — What’s the Difference?**

Let’s clear up the confusion — they're not quite the same!

✅ **Drug**

A **drug** is the **main active ingredient** —
👉 It’s the chemical that actually treats the illness or relieves symptoms.
🧠 Think of it as the "hero" doing the job!

✅ **Medicine**

A **medicine** =
🧪 Drug (the active ingredient)
➕
✨ Extra ingredients (called **excipients**) that help:
* Shape it into a pill, liquid, cream, etc.
* Make it taste better or work better
* Preserve it and package it

✅ **Drug Product / Finished Medicine**

This is the **final product** you buy from a pharmacy:
* Fully packaged
* Measured in the right dose
* Safe and ready to use

🧴 Examples: A paracetamol tablet, an insulin injection, or an asthma inhaler.

🧠 In short:
* **Drug** = The active fighter
* **Medicine** = Drug + helping ingredients
* **Drug Product** = Final, ready-to-use form

06/08/2025

Stool Culture Test
1. Objective:
The objective of the stool culture test was to isolate and identify pathogenic bacteria in a patient's f***l sample, particularly those causing gastrointestinal infections.
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2. Principle:
The test was based on the cultivation of stool specimens on selective and differential media to promote the growth of enteric pathogens while inhibiting normal flora. Biochemical and serological methods were then used to identify specific organisms.
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3. Materials:
• Fresh stool sample
• Sterile stool collection container
• Inoculating loop
• Culture media: MacConkey agar, XLD agar, SS agar, Selenite F broth
• Incubator (35–37°C)
• Biochemical test kits (TSI, SIM, Citrate, Urease, etc.)
• Gram staining reagents
• PPE (gloves, mask, lab coat)
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4. Procedure (Microbiological):
1. The stool sample was collected in a sterile container and transported promptly to the lab.
2. Using an inoculating loop, a portion of the stool was streaked onto MacConkey, XLD, and SS agar plates.
3. The sample was also inoculated into Selenite F broth for enrichment.
4. All media were incubated at 37°C for 18–24 hours.
5. After incubation, plates were examined for colony morphology.
6. Suspected colonies were further identified using biochemical tests and Gram staining.
7. If required, serological tests were performed for confirmation (e.g., Salmonella and Shigella serotyping).
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5. Result:
• Normal: No pathogenic organisms isolated; only normal gut flora observed.
• Abnormal: Growth of enteric pathogens like Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., E. coli (EHEC, ETEC), Campylobacter spp., or Vibrio cholerae.
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6. Uses:
• Diagnosed causes of diarrhea, dysentery, or food poisoning
• Identified antibiotic-resistant enteric bacteria
• Traced outbreaks of enteric infections
• Assisted in publ

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