Rahii Karak

06/09/2025

Gynecological Instruments

03/09/2025

03/09/2025

The vascular system (also called the circulatory system) is the body’s network of blood vessels that transports blood, nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and waste products to and from cells.

Main Components of the Vascular System:

1. Heart – the central pump that propels blood.

2. Blood vessels – three main types:

Arteries → carry oxygenated blood away from the heart (except pulmonary arteries).

Veins → return deoxygenated blood to the heart (except pulmonary veins).

Capillaries → tiny vessels where exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes occurs between blood and tissues.

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Two Main Vascular Circulations:

1. Systemic circulation

Carries oxygen-rich blood from the left ventricle → aorta → body tissues.

Returns deoxygenated blood via veins → right atrium.

2. Pulmonary circulation

Carries deoxygenated blood from right ventricle → pulmonary arteries → lungs.

Gas exchange happens in lung capillaries.

Oxygenated blood returns via pulmonary veins → left atrium.

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Specialized Vascular Systems:

Coronary circulation – supplies the heart muscle itself.

Portal venous system – e.g., the hepatic portal system carries nutrient-rich blood from intestines to the liver.

Lymphatic system – works alongside blood vessels, returning excess fluid and playing an immune role.

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⚡ In short:

Arteries = away from heart

Veins = toward heart

Capillaries = exchange site

03/09/2025

03/09/2025

An epigastric hernia is a type of abdominal wall hernia that occurs in the epigastric region (the area between the umbilicus/navel and the lower part of the sternum).

Key Points:

Cause: Protrusion of fat or sometimes part of the intestine through a weakness in the linea alba (a fibrous band in the midline of the abdominal wall).

Location: Midline, above the umbilicus, usually small in size.

Contents: Most often preperitoneal fat, less commonly bowel.

Risk factors: Obesity, heavy lifting, pregnancy, chronic cough, straining.

Symptoms:

A small lump in the upper midline abdomen

Pain or discomfort, especially when straining, coughing, or after meals

Sometimes asymptomatic and found incidentally

Complications: Rare, but may include incarceration or strangulation of bowel.

Diagnosis: Clinical examination, confirmed by ultrasound or CT if uncertain.

Treatment:

Small, asymptomatic → observation.

Symptomatic or enlarging → surgical repair (open or laparoscopic, sometimes with mesh reinforcement).

12/05/2025

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09/05/2025

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