Dr. T. Iqbal ; Physiology (2025)

04/08/2025

Male g***d : Te**is
Male gamet : S***m
Male s*x hormone : Testosterone

Female g***d : O***y
Female gamet : O**m
Female s*x hormone : Estrogen & Progesterone

02/08/2025

Commonly asked questions in Physiology card, term & Prof viva exam :
i)Define homeostasis. Why ECF(Extra Cellular Fluid) is called internal environment of the body?
ii)Define and give example of positive & negative feedback mechanism.
iii)Define cell. How many cells are present in human body? Mention the parts of a cell.
iv)Composition of cell membrane. Structure of cell membrane.
v) Structure of phospholipid of cell membrane, hydrophilic & hydrophobic end (Only viva)
vi)Type of protein in cell membrane. Mention function of each type.
vii) Function of cell membrane
viii) Name the membranous and non membranous oeganelles of cell
ix) Mitochondria contain which type of enzyme? Mention its function
Function of mitochondria
x)Type of Endoplasmic Reticulum.
Function of each type
xi) Lysosome contain which type of enzyme ? Give example.
Function of lysosome
xii) Different parts & function of nucleus
Written exam:
Draw & label a typical Human cell.
Draw and label cell membrane.

31/07/2025

Common questions from item no. 1 of reproductive system :
i) What do you mean by s*x determination and s*x differentiation?
ii) What is G***d? Name male & female g***d.
iii) What is gamet? Name male & female gamet.
iv) Puberty : Definition, age of puberty, events of puberty in female.
v) Function of te**is.
vi) Mention the secondary s*xual characteristics of male.
vii) Write down the compostion of semen.(only written)
vii) Normal s***m count. What is azoos***mia, oligos***mia & polys***mia? (only viva)
viii) What is s***matogenesis?
Site, temperature & time required for s***matogenesis,
Mention steps of s***matogenesis
ix) Write down the hormonal regulation of s***matogenesis.
x) Function of Testosterone
xi) What is cryptoorchidism? Mention its hazard.

23/07/2025

Function of different hormones on lipid metabolism :
Function of Growth hormone, Cortisol & Glucagon on lipid metabolism exactly same. All of them are lypolytic hormone (breakdown of fat). Function of these hormones :
i)Fatty acid uptake from adipose tissue
ii)Increase blood fatty acid level
iii)Increased conversion of fatty acid into acetyl Co- A by beta oxidation of fatty acid
iv)This acetyl Co- A can be used for ketone body synthesis (ketogenic effect)
Function of thyroid hormone on lipid metabolism very much same but last point is different : Thyroid hormone decreases serum cholesterol level by stimulating formation of LDL ( Low Density Lipoprotein) receptor.
Only anabolic hormone on lipid metabolism is insulin. Function of insulin in liver, it stimulates lipid synthesis.
In adipose tissue function of insulin :
i) Increase glucose uptake
ii) Increase fatty acid synthesis
iii)Increase glycerol phosphate synthesis
iv) Increase triglyceride deposition
v) Activation of lipoprotein lipase
vi) Inhibition of hormone sensitive lipase.

22/07/2025

Function of different hormones on protein metabolism :
Growth hormone stimulates protein synthesis by increasing amino acid uptake in cell membrane, increasing transcription (conversion of DNA into RNA), increasing translation (conversion of RNA into Protein).
Thyroid hormones in normal concentration stimulate protein synthesis but in higher concentration stimulate protein break down.
Cortisol stimulates protein synthesis only in liver. In extra- hepatic tissue, it causes protein break down.
Insulin in liver stimulates protein synthesis.
In muscle insulin, increase amino acid uptake, increase protein synthesis, decrease protein break down, decrease release of gluconeogenic amino acid.

19/07/2025

Hormones that incresse blood glucose level : Cortisol, glucagon, growth hormone, thyroid hormone, catecholamine
Growth hormone & cortisol increase blood glucose level by :
i)Decreasing peripheral utilization of glucose in skeletal muscle & adipose tissue.
ii) Increases gluconeogenesis
iii)Stimulates insulin secretion and induce insulin resistance
Growth hormone and cortisol এর mechanism of action to increase blood glucose level exactly same.

Glucagon increase blood glucose level by :
i) Increasing glycogenolysis
ii)Increasing gluconeogenesis

Thyroid hormone promote 4 process, 2 of them increase blood glucose level ( gluconeogenesis, glucose absorption from gut) ; 2 of them decrease blood glucose level (glycolysis, glucose uptake by cell). End result is thyroid hormone increase blood glucose level.

Only hormone that decrease blood glucose level is insulin.
In liver, linsulin stimulates those metabolic process where glucose is converted into other substance like glycolysis ( glucose is converted into pyruvate or lactate) & glycogenesis ( glucose is converted into glycogen). Insulin inhibits those metabolic process where other substance is converted into glucose like glycogenolysis( glycogen is converted into glucose) & gluconeogenesis (synthesis of glucose from non carbohydrate source).
Insulin stimulates glucose uptake by muscle & adipose tissue. In muscle, glucose is converted into glycogen and in adipose tissue glucose is used for synthesis of fatty acid.

17/07/2025

Function of insulin :
Target organ of insulin : Liver, muscle & adipose tissue.
On carbohydrate metabolism, insulin stimulates glucose uptake in cell.
Then insulin stimulates those metabolic reactions where glucose is converted into other substance like glycolysis( glucose is converted into pyruvate or lactate) and glycogenesis( glucose is converted into glycogen).
Insulin inhibits those metabolic reactions where other substance is converted into glucose like glycogenolysis( glycogen is converted into glucose) and gluconeogenesis(synthesis of glucose from non carbohydrate source)
End result is insulin is only hormone that decreases blood glucose level.
Insulin promotes protein synthesis in liver and muscle.
Insulin promotes lipid synthesis in liver and adipose tissue.
Insulin promotes potassium uptake in muscle and adipose tissue. So, blood potassium level decreases, results in hypokalaemia.
Insulin insensitve tissues : Brain, retina, RBC, kidney, intestine.

09/07/2025

Common questions from item no. 5 & 6 of endocrine system :
i)Name the hormones secreted from different layers of adrenal cortex.
ii) Name the adrenal medullary hormones.
iii)Function of aldosterone.
iv) Mention the regulation of secretion of aldosterone.
v) What is Aldosterone escape?
vi) What is Conn's syndrome?
vii) Why aldosterone is called an essential hormone or life saving hormone ?
viii) Function of cortisol on metabolism.
ix) Write down the anti inflammatory and anti stress function of cortisol.
x) What do you mean by permissive action of cortisol? Give example.
xi) Regulation of secretion of cortisol (Only viva)
xii)Addison's disease : Definition, cause, clinical features
Cushing syndrome : Definition, cause, clinical features
Androgen : Definition, example, function
Adrenogenital syndrome : clinical features
xiii) What do you mean by circadian rhythm of cortisol secretion?
xiv) What is pheochromocytoma?
xv) Name the hormones secreted from islets of Langerhans of pancreas.
xvi) Chemical nature of insulin.
xvii) Mechanism of action of insulin with diagram.
xviii) Function of insulin on liver, muscle and adipose tissue.
xix) Regulation of secretion of insulin.
xx) Mention the consequences of insulin lack.
xxi) Chemical nature and function of Glucagon
xxii) What is impaired glucose tolerance ?
xxiii)Normal fasting and random blood glucose level.
xxiv) Name the hormones that increase and decrease blood glucose level.
xxv) Diabetes mellitus : Definion, type.
xxvi) Difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus.
xxvii)Clinical feature, investigation and cimplication of diabetes mellitus.
xxviii) Causes of insulin resistance.
xxix) What is OGTT?

07/07/2025

Card, Term, Prof exam এর একটি common question, What are functions of Aldosterone ?
Ans. Reabsorption of sodium and secretion of potassium from distal part of nephron ( Collecting tubule & collecting duct).
Student রা commonly ভুল উত্তর দেয়, 'reabsorption of water অথবা excretion of potassium.'
Excretion আর secretion এক জিনিস নয়, excretion means romoval from body ( urine, stool excretion) অপরদিকে secretion মানে nephron এর tubular epithelial cell থেকে tubular lumen এ আসা, সেই substance ultimately urine দিয়ে excrete হবে এটা ঠিক কিন্তু nephron এর ভেতর কোন hormone এর function either reabsorption or secretion, not excretion.
Next question examiner ask করবে, " সোডিয়াম ছাড়া আর কি reabsorption করে aldosterone ? তখন answer হবে, " Water & chloride ion ". তবে প্রথমে কখনো water বলা যাবে না, প্রথমে water বললে সেটা ADH এর function হবে। Sodium osmotically active substance, so sodium reabsorption হলে automatic water reabsorption হয়।
Next question :পটাশিয়াম ছাড়া আর কি secretion করে aldosterone ?
Ans. Hydrogen ion.
Next question : Renal tubule ছাড়া আর কোথায় Aldosterone কাজ করে sodium reabsorption & potassium secretion ?
Ans. Sweat & salaivary gland, Intestine.
Next question : Cardiovascular system এর উপর aldosterone এর কি effect ?
Ans. Aldosterone causes sodium, chloride and water reabsorption. So, sodium chloride concentration in blood increases, ECF ( Extracellular Fluid) volume increases. So, blood volume & blood pressure increases ( Hypertension develop).

Next question : What are the factors that regulate aldosterone secretion? And why Aldosterone is an essential hormone ?

02/07/2025

Essential hormones in human body :
i)Parathyroid hormone : It maintains calcium homeostasis
ii)Aldosterone : It maintains sodium & potassium homeostasis.
Emergency hormone : Cortisol, because of its anti stress function

29/06/2025

Common questions from item no. 3 & 4 of endocrine system :
i)Name the hormones secreted from the thyroid gland.
ii) T3 & T4 which one is more potent & concentration of T3 & T4 (only viva)
iii) Raw materials for thyroid hormone synthesis, source of iodine, requirement of iodine ( Only viva)
iv) Briefly discuss about the steps of synthesis of thyroid hormone with diagram.
v) Regulation of secretion of thyroid hormone ( Only viva).
vi) Mention thyroid function tests with their interpretation.
vii) Write down the function of thyroid hormone on metabolism, growth.
What is calorigenic effect of thyroid hormone ?
viii) Write down the function of thyroid hormone on cardiovascular system, respiratory system, blood, GIT and reproductive system.
ix) What are the clinical features of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism?
x) Cretinism : Definition, cause, clinical feature. Why protruded tongue and pot bellied abdomen develop ?
xi) Myxedema : Definition, cause.
What type of oedema develops?
xii)What are the difference between pituitary dwarfism and cretin baby dwarfism.
xiii)What is Grave's disease and exophthalmus ?
xiv) Define Goiter. How it is developed ?
xv)Chemical nature of parathyroid hormone. Why it is an essential hormone?
xvi) Calcium concentration in blood, forms of calcium in blood, function of ionized calcium.
xvii) Write down the function of parathyroid hormone.
xviii) Briefly discuss about calcium homeostasis or how normal concentration of calcium in blood is maintained ? ( only written)
xix)Name the hormones involved in calcium homeostasis. Function of calcitriol & calcitonin.(viva)
xx) What is tetany? Mention its clinical feature and treatment.
Tetany develops when blood calcium level falls to which level and when it is lethal ?

25/06/2025

আজকে 2nd year এর লেকচার ক্লাস এর একটি টপিক ছিল Grave's disease. এই disease এর একটি clinical feature "exophthalmus".
Exophthalmus means protrusion of eyeball. It occurs due to oedematus growth of retro orbital tissue and degeneration of extra ocular muscle.
It is diagnosed by visible upper sclera.
Explanation : Eyeball এর black colour এর structure cornea & white colour এর structure sclera.
Normally upper sclera is covered by eyelid. But in exophthalmus, upper sclera is visible.
নিচের ছবিটি Textbook Guyton এর। ছবিটি দেখে বিষয়টি পরিষ্কার বুঝা যাচ্ছে।

Dr. T. Iqbal ; Physiology