Wakjira Fekadu

24/03/2026

🩺 1. Infectious Causes
Cause: Bacteria (Streptococcus pyogenes)
→ Disease: Rheumatic Fever
→ Clinical: Fever, joint pain, carditis, chorea

Cause: Virus (Hepatitis B virus)
→ Disease: Hepatitis B
→ Clinical: Jaundice, fatigue, hepatomegaly

Cause: Mycobacterium tuberculosis
→ Disease: Tuberculosis
→ Clinical: Chronic cough, weight loss, night sweats

🫀 2. Cardiovascular Causes
Cause: Atherosclerosis
→ Disease: Myocardial Infarction
→ Clinical: Chest pain, sweating, radiation to arm

Cause: Hypertension
→ Disease: Stroke
→ Clinical: Weakness, slurred speech, paralysis

🧠 3. Neurological Causes
Cause: Dopamine deficiency
→ Disease: Parkinson’s Disease
→ Clinical: Tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia

Cause: Increased intracranial pressure
→ Disease: Brain Tumor
→ Clinical: Headache, vomiting, papilledema

🫁 4. Respiratory Causes
Cause: Smoking
→ Disease: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
→ Clinical: Chronic cough, dyspnea, wheeze

Cause: Allergens
→ Disease: Asthma
→ Clinical: Wheezing, breathlessness, cough

🍬 5. Metabolic Causes
Cause: Insulin resistance
→ Disease: Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
→ Clinical: Polyuria, polydipsia, fatigue

Cause: Iodine deficiency
→ Disease: Goiter
→ Clinical: Neck swelling, hypothyroid signs

🩸 6. Hematological Causes
Cause: Iron deficiency
→ Disease: Iron Deficiency Anemia
→ Clinical: Pallor, fatigue, spoon nails

Cause: Vitamin B12 deficiency
→ Disease: Megaloblastic Anemia
→ Clinical: Weakness, glossitis, neuropathy

🧾 Exam Quick Tips
Always link cause → pathophysiology → clinical signs

MCQs often test classic triads (e.g., Parkinson’s: tremor + rigidity + bradykinesia)

Remember common causes first (infection, lifestyle, deficiency)

Disclaimer:
For Educational purpose only

05/02/2026

How to Differentiate Platelet Disorders, ITP Vs TTP Vs DIC

Low platelet count is not one disease. Correct differentiation starts with patterns, not numbers.

🔬 Core Mechanism
• ITP, immune platelet destruction
• TTP, microthrombi due to ADAMTS13 deficiency
• DIC, uncontrolled coagulation activation

🧠 Clinical Clues
• ITP, bleeding without organ damage
• TTP, neurologic signs and renal involvement
• DIC, bleeding plus thrombosis and shock

🧪 Key Lab Patterns
• ITP, isolated thrombocytopenia, normal PT aPTT
• TTP, schistocytes with normal coagulation tests
• DIC, prolonged PT aPTT with low fibrinogen

📌 Lab Takeaway
Always read platelet count together with smear and coagulation profile.

04/02/2026

28/01/2026

CRP vs ESR – Inflammation Markers
Feature CRP (C-Reactive Protein) ESR (Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate)
What it is Acute-phase protein made by liver Rate at which RBCs settle in 1 hour
Type Direct marker of inflammation Indirect marker of inflammation
Rise time Rises within 6–8 hours Rises slowly (24–48 hrs)
Fall after recovery Falls quickly Falls slowly
Sensitivity More sensitive & specific Less specific
Affected by Infection, inflammation, tissue injury Anemia, pregnancy, age, RBC shape
Normal value < 1 mg/dL (or

12/01/2026

Biosafety Levels Explained, What BSL 1 to BSL 4 Really Mean in the Laboratory

Biosafety levels define how laboratories manage biological risks. From basic teaching labs to maximum containment facilities, each BSL matches the hazard level of the organism, its transmission route, and available treatment. Higher BSL means stricter controls, not a more dangerous lab

25/12/2025

Troponin CKMB Comparison

Troponin and CKMB are cardiac biomarkers used in suspected myocardial infarction. Troponin is highly specific and remains elevated longer, making it the primary diagnostic marker. CKMB rises and falls faster, which helps in detecting reinfarction or recent cardiac injury

25/12/2025

CRP ESR Inflammation Test Comparison

CRP and ESR are inflammatory markers used in infection and autoimmune diseases. This comparison shows how CRP rises quickly in acute inflammation while ESR reflects chronic inflammatory changes and disease activity.

24/12/2025

🛑 TYPES OF CANCER 🛑

💠 Carcinoma is a cancer that starts in the ectoderm or endoderm of epithelial cells of skin or the tissues that line other organs.

💠 Sarcoma is a cancer of connective tissues such as bones, muscles, cartilage, and blood vessels.

💠 Leukemia is a cancer of bone marrow, which creates blood cells.

💠 Lymphoma is a cancer of the immune system that starts in the lymph glands or cells of the lymphatic system

💠 Myeloma is a cancer of the immune system that starts in plasma cells ( WBC)

💠 Melanoma is a cancer of skin that develops when melanocytes (the cells that give the skin its tan or brown color) start to grow out of control.

💠 Germinoma is a cancer derived from germ cell which are commonly found in the brain of young ages.

24/12/2025

🔬 Organ-Specific Cancer Biomarkers & Their Uses

Cancer biomarkers help clinicians detect cancer early, guide treatment decisions, and monitor therapeutic response. Each biomarker is often linked to a specific organ or cancer type, making it a powerful tool in precision oncology.🧑‍🔬🔬

🧬 Key Organ-Specific Cancer Biomarkers

🟦 Prostate – PSA (Prostate-Specific Antigen)
• Early detection and monitoring of prostate cancer.

🟪 O***y – CA-125 (Cancer Antigen 125)
• Diagnosis, staging, and follow-up of ovarian cancer.

🟧 Liver – AFP (Alpha-Fetoprotein)
• Biomarker for hepatocellular carcinoma and germ cell tumors.

🟩 Breast – HER2/neu, BRCA1/BRCA2
• HER2 guides targeted therapy.
• BRCA mutations indicate hereditary breast & ovarian cancer risk.

🟫 Pancreas – CA 19-9
• Used in prognosis and monitoring of pancreatic cancer.

⬛ Colon/Rectum – CEA (Carcinoembryonic Antigen), KRAS Mutation
• CEA helps track colorectal cancer recurrence.
• KRAS mutation guides therapy selection.

⬜ Lung – EGFR Mutation, ALK Rearrangement
• Crucial for planning targeted therapies in lung cancer.

🟨 Thyroid – Thyroglobulin, Calcitonin
• Thyroglobulin monitors papillary & follicular thyroid cancers.
• Calcitonin is elevated in medullary thyroid carcinoma.

17/12/2025

Alpha-Fetoprotein (AFP) Test
1. Objective
The objective was to measure the level of alpha-fetoprotein in blood to assist in the diagnosis and monitoring of certain cancers and fetal abnormalities.
2. Principle
The test was based on an immunoassay principle. AFP present in the sample reacted with specific anti-AFP antibodies to form an antigen–antibody complex. The measured signal was proportional to the AFP concentration.
3. Materials
• Venous blood sample
• AFP reagent kit
• Test tubes
• Micropipette and tips
• Incubator
• Analyzer (ELISA/CLIA)
• Standard and control sera
4. Procedure (Laboratory method)
• Blood was collected under aseptic conditions.
• Serum was separated by centrifugation.
• Sample, standards, and controls were added to designated wells/tubes.
• AFP reagents were added as per kit instructions.
• The mixture was incubated for the specified time.
• Washing and detection steps were performed.
• AFP level was measured using an analyzer.
5. Result
The AFP concentration was obtained and recorded in ng/mL.
6. Uses
• It was used to screen and monitor hepatocellular carcinoma.
• It helped in detecting germ cell tumors.
• It was used in prenatal screening for neural tube defects.
• It aided in monitoring treatment response.
7. Consultation (Interpretation)
• Normal adult level:

15/12/2025

Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) Test
1. Objective
The objective was to measure the percentage of glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) in blood to assess long-term glycemic control over the previous 2–3 months.
2. Principle
The test was based on the measurement of hemoglobin that had undergone non-enzymatic glycation with glucose. The amount of HbA1c formed was directly proportional to the average blood glucose concentration during the lifespan of red blood cells. The assay was commonly performed using immunoturbidimetric or HPLC methods.
3. Materials
• Whole blood sample collected in EDTA tube
• HbA1c reagent kit
• Test tubes or sample cups
• Micropipette and tips
• Analyzer (HPLC or immunoassay analyzer)
• Calibrators and controls
4. Procedure (Laboratory method)
• Venous blood was collected in an EDTA tube.
• The sample was mixed gently to prevent clotting.
• The blood sample was loaded into the analyzer.
• Hemoglobin was separated and HbA1c fraction was measured.
• The analyzer calculated the HbA1c percentage automatically.
5. Result
The HbA1c value was obtained and reported as a percentage (%) of total hemoglobin.
6. Uses
• It was used to diagnose diabetes mellitus.
• It helped in monitoring long-term glycemic control.
• It assisted in assessing the risk of diabetic complications.
• It was useful for evaluating treatment effectiveness.
7. Consultation (Interpretation)
• Normal:

12/12/2025

CBC interpretation