Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy and Physiology 2021 A set of over 27 hours of video lectures, with online video tutorials with Laurence Hattersley
Covers all major structures and systems. ITEC recognized.

The price is €120 and €130 to take ITEC exam, if certificate is required A video lecture set, with online video tutorials
Check website for details
Covers all major structures and systems. The price is €150

WHIPLASH & THE TECTORIAL MEMBRANE: “Whiplash is an acceleration–deceleration injury that can disrupt: • Deep craniocervi...
12/01/2026

WHIPLASH & THE TECTORIAL MEMBRANE: “Whiplash is an acceleration–deceleration injury that can disrupt:
• Deep craniocervical ligaments
• Brainstem-adjacent structures
• Central neural pathways involved in posture, balance, and autonomic regulation

⸻

🦴 THE TECTORIAL MEMBRANE: A CRITICAL STABILIZER AT THE BRAIN–NECK JUNCTION

The tectorial membrane (TM) is not just another ligament.

🔹 It is the superior continuation of the posterior longitudinal ligament (PLL)
🔹 It runs from C2 (axis) to the clivus at the base of the skull
🔹 It lies directly in front of the spinal cord and brainstem, blending with intracranial dura

🧠 Why this matters:

The tectorial membrane acts as a protective barrier that:
• Limits excessive flexion/extension and translation at the craniocervical junction
• Helps prevent the dens (odontoid process) from migrating toward the brainstem
• Plays a role in brainstem stability, dural tension, and CSF dynamics

When this structure is stressed or injured, the consequences are neurological, not just mechanical.

⸻

🚗 WHAT WHIPLASH DOES TO THE TECTORIAL MEMBRANE

During whiplash, the head moves violently relative to the torso. This places enormous shear and tensile forces on the upper cervical ligaments—especially the tectorial membrane.

📌 A Cureus study demonstrated that:
• Tectorial membrane injury is frequently present in adult trauma patients
• TM disruption is commonly found in cases requiring occipital–cervical fusion
• Injury may exist even without obvious fractures or gross instability on initial imaging

👉 This means ligamentous failure can occur silently, but still destabilize the brain–neck interface.

⸻

🧠 WHIPLASH IS ALSO A NEUROLOGICAL INJURY

Whiplash can simultaneously injure:
• Peripheral sensory systems (neck proprioceptors)
• Central neural pathways
• Craniocervical stabilizing ligaments

⸻

🔄 THE SENSORIMOTOR CASCADE AFTER WHIPLASH

When the tectorial membrane and upper cervical structures are compromised, the brain receives distorted information from multiple systems:

1️⃣ Cervical Proprioception

Damaged neck receptors send inaccurate head-position data, creating sensory mismatch.

2️⃣ Vestibular System

The inner ear depends on stable cervical input. Distortion here leads to:
• Dizziness
• Motion sensitivity
• Balance loss

3️⃣ Visual System

Eye movements rely on neck–vestibular coordination. Disruption causes:
• Visual motion intolerance
• Tracking difficulty
• Visual dizziness

4️⃣ Brainstem & Central Pathways

TM injury and abnormal motion at the craniocervical junction can:
• Alter brainstem signaling
• Increase autonomic dysregulation
• Stress pathways like the CRT”The Functional Neurology Center: Concussion Brain Injury Minnetonka, MN. MN.

Image: C.M. Brown

⸻

Incredible! All this, even though on 10% of the serotonin (5HT) of the body is in the brain.The other 90% is in the gut🧠...
12/01/2026

Incredible! All this, even though on 10% of the serotonin (5HT) of the body is in the brain.
The other 90% is in the gut
🧠 The Dorsal Raphe Nucleus: Serotonergic Projection Hub
Discover the brain’s primary source of serotonin and its widespread influence on mood, sleep, stress, and pain modulation. An essential concept in neuroanatomy and neurophysiology.

Voluntary movement is controlled by specific brain circuits and is carried out consciously. The process begins with the ...
12/01/2026

Voluntary movement is controlled by specific brain circuits and is carried out consciously. The process begins with the intention to move, which is generated in the prefrontal cortex and limbic areas. This intention is then processed by the presupplementary and supplementary motor areas, which are responsible for planning and organizing complex sequences of movement. The premotor cortex also plays a role by selecting appropriate movements based on external sensory information received from the parietal cortex. Together, the presupplementary, supplementary motor, and premotor areas generate readiness potentials known as Bereitschaftspotential 1.

The planned motor information is then sent from the motor cortex to two parallel control loops, the basal ganglia and the cerebellum, where movements are checked and fine-tuned. After modulation, the signals return to the motor cortex through the thalamus. At the same time, a corollary discharge is produced and sent to the parietal cortex, where it is compared with proprioceptive feedback to create a sense of agency. Finally, the refined motor command leaves the primary motor cortex as Bereitschaftspotential 2 and travels to the spinal cord and contralateral muscles, resulting in the ex*****on of movement.

Start your Better Brain journey, link in the bio.

Reference: Virameteekul S and Bhidayasiri R (2022) We Move or Are We Moved? Unpicking the Origins of Voluntary Movements to Better Understand Semivoluntary Movements. Front. Neurol. 13:834217.

🚀 Deep dive into the brain’s breathing control system! This diagram shows how the *higher centers* (cerebral cortex, lim...
11/01/2026

🚀 Deep dive into the brain’s breathing control system! This diagram shows how the *higher centers* (cerebral cortex, limbic system, hypothalamus) and *CSF chemoreceptors* regulate respiration through the *pons* and *medulla oblongata*. The pathways labeled A–F illustrate the stimulation (red) and inhibition (blue) of motor neurons that control the diaphragm and other respiratory muscles via the phrenic nerve and spinal cord.
🧠 Brain Boost: How we breathe! The respiratory rhythm centers in the medulla and pons fire signals (🔴 stimulation / 🟢 inhibition) to the diaphragm & respiratory muscles, keeping our breath in sync with the higher brain & CSF chemoreceptors. ”

Want me to break down any specific part of the pathway (e.g., what A, B, C, D, E, or F represent) or explain how the chemoreceptors affect breathing? 🤔

Triangular Interval Syndrome – Posterior Shoulder Biomechanics ExplainedThis image illustrates the triangular interval (...
11/01/2026

Triangular Interval Syndrome – Posterior Shoulder Biomechanics Explained

This image illustrates the triangular interval (triceps hiatus), an important anatomical space in the posterior shoulder formed by the teres major (superior), long head of triceps (medial), and humeral shaft (lateral). The triangular interval transmits the radial nerve and profunda brachii artery, making it clinically significant. Any alteration in muscle tone, hypertrophy, fibrosis, or scapular positioning can reduce this space and lead to nerve compression.

From a biomechanical perspective, excessive shoulder extension, adduction, and internal rotation—especially in overhead athletes or strength training—can increase tension across the teres major and long head of triceps. This alters scapulohumeral rhythm and increases compression within the triangular interval, potentially causing posterior shoulder pain, radiating arm symptoms, or neural irritation.

Clinically, managing triangular interval syndrome requires more than local treatment. Focus should be on scapular control, posterior shoulder flexibility, balanced rotator cuff activation, and proper load management. Understanding these anatomical spaces helps clinicians identify hidden sources of shoulder pain and optimize rehabilitation strategies.

Effects of Glucocorticoids in Chronic Stress and Post Traumatic Hippocampal ChangesChronic stress and prolonged elevatio...
04/01/2026

Effects of Glucocorticoids in Chronic Stress and Post Traumatic Hippocampal Changes

Chronic stress and prolonged elevation of glucocorticoids produce marked structural and functional alterations in the hippocampus. In late post traumatic stages, the most prominent histological features include loss of GABAergic neurons in the dentate gyrus and sustained neuroinflammation. Together, these changes shift hippocampal networks toward excessive excitation and impaired inhibitory control.

Excitatory Synaptic Alterations

1) Glutamatergic synapse on dentate gyrus granule cells
Glucocorticoids enhance glutamatergic signaling at AMPA receptor mediated synapses on granule cells, leading to increased excitatory drive.

2) Glutamatergic collaterals on granule neurons
Mossy fiber sprouting strengthens recurrent excitatory connections within the dentate gyrus, further increasing network excitability.

3) Glutamatergic synapse on CA3 pyramidal neurons
In the CA3 field, chronic stress elevates excitatory postsynaptic potential amplitude through NMDA dependent mechanisms. This effect is compounded by reduced inhibitory tone resulting from GABAergic neuronal loss.

4) Glutamatergic synapse on CA1 pyramidal neurons
Although direct evidence for glucocorticoid modulation of CA1 glutamatergic synapses is limited, similar effects to those observed in CA3 pyramidal neurons are likely.

Inhibitory Synaptic Alterations

5) GABAergic synapse on pyramidal neurons
Loss of interneurons leads to disrupted inhibitory signaling and the emergence of abnormal rhythmic inhibitory postsynaptic currents, reflecting impaired network inhibition.

Abbreviations and Diagram Key

pp, perforant path; gc, granule cell; mf, mossy fibers; pc, pyramidal cells of the CA3 and CA1 fields; sc, Schaffer collateral; in, interneuron. Red circles indicate activating actions, while blue circles denote inhibitory actions.

Reference: Komoltsev, I. G., & Gulyaeva, N. V. (2022). Brain trauma, glucocorticoids and neuroinflammation: Dangerous liaisons for the hippocampus. Biomedicines.

⭐️ CONCUSSION, THE NECK & DIZZINESS — THE CRITICAL LINK TOO OFTEN MISSED ⭐️Why persistent concussion symptoms are NOT ju...
03/01/2026

⭐️ CONCUSSION, THE NECK & DIZZINESS — THE CRITICAL LINK TOO OFTEN MISSED ⭐️

Why persistent concussion symptoms are NOT just “in the brain”… and why the neck may be the missing piece of your recovery.

Every week at The Functional Neurology Center, we meet patients who have been told to “just rest” after concussion — only to find themselves months or even years later still struggling with dizziness, light sensitivity, visual strain, imbalance, head pressure, jaw pain, or motion intolerance.

Many are told their scans are normal.
Many are told it’s anxiety.
Many are told their symptoms “don’t make sense.”

But emerging research — including a 2025 Frontiers in Neurology article on cervicogenic dizziness — is finally explaining what we see in clinic every day:

👉 Persistent post-concussion symptoms are often driven by a sensory mismatch between the neck, the vestibular system, and the visual system.
👉 And until the neck is addressed, symptoms can persist — no matter how much you rest.

⸻

🧠 The Science: Why the Neck Matters in Concussion

The upper cervical spine (C0–C3) is packed with proprioceptors — sensors that tell the brain:

• where your head is in space
• how fast it’s moving
• how your eyes should stabilize
• how your balance system should respond
• and how to coordinate posture

After concussion or whiplash, this information can become distorted.

The 2025 Frontiers in Neurology article outlines exactly what happens next:

🔹 1️⃣ The neck sends altered proprioceptive signals

🔹 2️⃣ The brainstem and vestibular nuclei receive conflicting information

🔹 3️⃣ The visual system tries to compensate

🔹 4️⃣ The cerebellum attempts to reweight sensory input

🔹 5️⃣ A sensory mismatch develops

This mismatch is what drives:

✔ dizziness
✔ motion intolerance
✔ unsteadiness
✔ “floating” or “rocking” sensations
✔ eye strain
✔ head pressure
✔ jaw or facial pain
✔ anxiety in busy environments

The article emphasizes that this mismatch can persist — even after the brain has “healed” — unless the cervical system is rehabilitated.

(Source: Frontiers in Neurology, 2025 — Cervicogenic Dizziness Perspective)

⸻

🌀 Why Imaging & Rest Often Fail

Standard MRIs and CT scans look at structure — not function.

They cannot detect:

• proprioceptive errors
• vestibular integration issues
• cervical mechanoreceptor dysfunction
• sensory mismatch
• autonomic dysregulation

So patients are told everything is “normal,” while their functional systems are deeply dysregulated.

Rest alone cannot recalibrate these systems.

They need targeted, active retraining.

✔ Cervical Proprioceptive Training

• joint position error
• deep neck flexor sequencing
• suboccipital function
• C0–C3 sensorimotor control

✔ Vestibular Rehabilitation

• VOR gain
• head-eye reflex training
• habituation
• motion sensitivity reduction

✔ Ocular Motor & Visual Processing

• saccades
• pursuits
• convergence
• optokinetic response

✔ Trigeminal & TMJ Pathways

• dural tension
• jaw mechanics
• facial pain modulation

✔ Cerebellar / Nodulus Integration

• gravity & velocity storage
• otolith processing
• postural control

✔ Autonomic Regulation

• HRV
• breath-driven vagal modulation
• limbic calming

✔ Sensory Re-weighting & Integration

This is why patients who have tried everything else often improve when these systems are finally treated together.

⸻

🙌 Why This Matters for YOU

If you still have:

• dizziness
• foggy vision
• motion intolerance
• neck pain
• head pressure
• jaw tension
• imbalance
• fatigue
• anxiety in busy environments

months or years after a concussion…

There is a physiological reason.
It is NOT “in your head.”
It is not “just anxiety.”

It is a treatable mismatch between the neck, vestibular, and visual systems.

And when treated holistically — recovery often accelerates.

https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/neurology/articles/10.3389/fneur.2025.1545241/full

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A 6 day course in Cork, 2018, starting Feb 3/4. Check website (www.anatomy4beginners.com) or details Covers all major structures and systems. ITEC recognized. The price is €600

Course Content

Cell Function: Cell membranes – structure and function; Intracellular organelles and their functions; Energy production; Protein synthesis; Nucleus and DNA; Cell division: mitosis and meiosis

Tissue types with functions: Muscle, Nervous, Epithelial, Connective