Dr Imtyaz

05/07/2025

RENAL SYSTEM OVERVIEW.

05/07/2025

MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS.

04/07/2025

Hepatitis B

04/07/2025

Causes of Pleural Effusion

04/07/2025

Calprotectin Test
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1. Objective
The objective of the test was to measure the level of calprotectin in a stool sample, which served as a marker for intestinal inflammation, helping to distinguish between inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).
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2. Principle
Calprotectin is a protein released by neutrophils during inflammation. Its concentration increases in the stool during intestinal inflammation. The test was usually conducted using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) or rapid immunochromatographic assay that detected f***l calprotectin levels.
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3. Materials
• Fresh stool sample in sterile container
• Calprotectin ELISA kit or rapid test cassette
• Buffer and pipettes
• Microwell plate (for ELISA) or lateral flow strip
• Reader (for quantitative ELISA)
• Gloves and lab coat
For more : https://earthofstory1.blogspot.com/2025/07/elisa-enzyme-linked-immunosorbent-assay.html
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4. Procedure
1. A stool sample was collected and mixed with buffer.
2. The extract was either applied to a lateral flow cassette or loaded into an ELISA plate well.
3. In ELISA, reagents were added stepwise with washing in between.
4. After incubation and color development, the result was read visually (rapid test) or by a spectrophotometer (ELISA).
5. Concentration was compared against standard references.
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5. Result (Example)
Calprotectin Level (μg/g) Interpretation
< 50 Normal (likely IBS)
50–200 Borderline/mild inflammation
> 200 Abnormal (suggests IBD)
• Test Result: 320 μg/g
• Interpretation: Positive – Indicates active intestinal inflammation
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6. Uses
• Differentiated between IBD (e.g., Crohn’s, ulcerative colitis) and IBS
• Monitored disease activity and response to therapy in IBD patients
• Reduced the need for invasive procedures like colonoscopy
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7. Conclusion
The calprotectin test was a non-invasive and reliable marker for intestinal inflammation, aiding in the diagnosis and monitoring of IBD and improving clinical decision-making in gastrointestinal disorders.

02/07/2025

💢 Thyroid Disorders
Stay tuned for more information

02/07/2025

Pleural Disease

🩺 When a chest scan shows pleural disease:

➤ If there’s new fluid (effusion):
1. Perform thoracentesis (remove fluid to test).
2. The fluid is either:
• Transudative (watery, due to pressure imbalance)
• Exudative (thicker, due to infection, inflammation, or cancer)

⸻

🔹 If Transudative fluid:

This usually means a non-infectious cause:
• Heart Failure:
• Signs: high BNP, big heart on imaging
• Treatment: diuretics to remove extra fluid
• Cirrhosis (liver disease):
• Signs: liver dysfunction, low albumin
• Refer to a liver specialist
• Nephrotic Syndrome (kidney problem):
• Signs: lots of protein in urine, low serum protein
• Refer to a kidney specialist

⸻

🔸 If Exudative fluid:

More serious – suggests infection, inflammation, or cancer. Check:
• Low glucose → possible infection or cancer
• High white blood cells in fluid (WBCs):
• Less than 5,000 → likely malignancy
• Between 10,000 and 50,000 → likely parapneumonic effusion (infection from pneumonia)
• Give antibiotics
• More than 50,000 → likely empyema (pus in pleura)
• Need antibiotics + drain the fluid
• Very high amylase + recent vomiting → think esophageal rupture
• Do a test with water and contrast imaging
• Milky white fluid + high fat (triglycerides) → Chylothorax
• Often after surgery
• Treatment:
1. Drain the fluid
2. Low-fat diet
3. May need surgery to fix the leak

⸻

🧱 If the scan shows abnormal pleura (not just fluid):
• Pleural plaques:
• Due to asbestos exposure
• Harmless, no treatment needed
• Thickened pleura + effusion on one side:
• Could be mesothelioma (a type of cancer)
• Do a biopsy
• Treatment: surgery, chemotherapy, maybe immunotherapy

30/06/2025

Pressure Measurement With A Sphygmomanometer
1. Cuff Inflated – Artery Closed
The cuff is pumped up to stop blood flow in the arm. You hear nothing through the stethoscope.
2. Cuff Pressure Drops – Artery Opens Slightly
Air is slowly released. When blood starts to squeeze through, it makes a tapping sound (called Korotkoff sounds).
→ First sound = Systolic pressure (top number)
3. Cuff Pressure Drops More – Artery Fully Open
Blood flows smoothly again and the sound disappears.
→ Last sound = Diastolic pressure (bottom number)

Tools:
• Sphygmomanometer (blood pressure device) includes:
• Gauge: Shows the pressure in mmHg.
• Bulb: Pumped by hand to inflate the cuff.
• Valve: Releases air slowly to lower the pressure.
• Cuff: Wrapped around the upper arm and inflated to squeeze the artery.
• Stethoscope: Used to listen to blood sounds in the arm.

Body Parts Involved:
• Heart: Pumps blood through the body.
• Brachial artery: Main artery used for measuring blood pressure.
• Radial & Ulnar arteries: Branch from the brachial artery but not directly used during this measurement.

29/06/2025

29/06/2025

Respiratory pharmacology

29/06/2025

💢 Types of Cancer
Stay tuned for more information

29/06/2025

Hormones and Related Drugs