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03/06/2025

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06/05/2025

10/02/2025

15/10/2024

Knee pain can have many causes, including injuries, overuse, and arthritis:

Injuries: Knee sprains, ligament tears, meniscus tears, bone fractures, or dislocations

Overuse: Repetitive exercises like running or jumping can cause knee pain

Arthritis: Osteoarthritis is the most common type of arthritis and causes the cartilage in your knee to wear down. Other types of arthritis that can cause knee pain include rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and gout

Tendinitis: Tendons are the tissue that attaches muscles to bones, and if they become inflamed or irritated, it can cause knee pain

Iliotibial band syndrome: A common cause of knee pain in runners, this occurs where the iliotibial band runs along the side of the thigh

Patellofemoral pain: Also known as runner’s knee

Osgood-Schlatter disease: Also known as jumper’s knee

Simple causes of knee pain can often clear up on their own. You can try these steps to manage your symptoms:
Rest and avoid activities that cause pain
Apply ice
Take ibuprofen (Motrin) or naproxen (Aleve) for pain and swelling
Sleep with a pillow underneath or between your knees.

15/10/2024

The humerus is the largest bone in the upper limb and the arm, and is made up of several parts and sections:

Head: The rounded proximal end of the humerus that forms a ball and socket joint with the glenoid cavity of the scapula

Anatomical neck: The section below the head that separates it from the greater and lesser tubercles

Surgical neck: The constriction below the tubercles that’s prone to fractures

Shaft: The long, middle section that supports the upper arm’s weight and gives it shape

Distal end: The lower end that forms the top of the elbow joint and meets the radius and ulna

Epicondyles: Two processes on the distal end

Trochlea and capitulum: Two processes on the distal end

Fossae: Three fossae on the distal end: radial, coronoid, and olecranon

Intertubercular sulcus: A groove that separates the greater and lesser tubercles

Deltoid tuberosity: A landmark on the humerus

The humerus articulates with the scapula at the shoulder joint, and with the radius and ulna at the elbow joint.

15/10/2024

The clavicle, or collarbone, is a long, slightly curved bone that connects the arm to the body:

Shape
The clavicle is S-shaped, with a convex anterior curve and a convex posterior curve.

Location
The clavicle is located on either side of the base of the neck, anterior to the subclavian vessels and the brachial plexus.

Function
The clavicle helps keep the shoulder blade in place while moving, and contributes to the power and stability of the upper limb.

Parts
The clavicle has three parts: the acromial end, the body, and the sternal end.

Surfaces
The clavicle has superior and inferior surfaces, and anterior and posterior borders.

Landmarks
The clavicle has several landmarks, including the conoid tubercle, trapezoid line, and groove for the subclavius muscle.

Joints
The clavicle articulates with the scapula at the acromioclavicular joint, and with the manubrium of the sternum at the sternoclavicular joint.

Blood supply
The clavicle’s main blood supply comes from the thoracoacromial trunk.

Nerves
The clavicle is innervated by the subclavian, lateral pectoral, and supraclavicular nerves.

Ossification
The clavicle is the first bone to start ossifying, around the 5th–6th weeks of gestation, and is the last to fuse, around 22–25 years of age.

The clavicle is prone to injury, especially in contact sports, falls, and car accidents. Most clavicle fractures occur in the middle of the bone, but it can also break where it attaches to the shoulder blade or ribcage.

15/10/2024

The scapula, also known as the shoulder blade, is a flat, triangular bone in the upper back that’s part of the shoulder joint:

Location
The scapula is located on the back of the rib cage in the upper thoracic region.

Function
The scapula connects the humerus (upper arm bone) to the clavicle (collarbone) at the shoulder joint. It also attaches to many muscles, including the rotator cuff muscles, teres major, subscapularis, teres minor, and infraspinatus.

Structure
The scapula has several bony features, including the head, neck, body, coracoid process, and acromion. It also has surfaces like the costal and dorsal surfaces, and borders like the medial, lateral, and superior borders.

Landmarks
The scapula has landmarks like the spine, supraspinous and infraspinous fossae, glenoid fossa, and supraglenoid and infraglenoid tubercles.

Blood supply
The scapula receives blood from several arteries, including the suprascapular artery, posterior circumflex humeral artery, circumflex scapular artery, and transverse cervical artery.

Nerves
The dorsal scapular nerve is a motor nerve that innervates the levator scapulae, rhomboid major, and rhomboid minor muscles.

Fractures
The scapula is difficult to fracture because of the many muscles attached to it.

15/10/2024

The vertebral column, also known as the spine, is a set of 33 bones and soft tissues that run from the base of the skull to the tailbone:

Region
Number of vertebrae
Cervical
7
Thoracic
12
Lumbar
5
Sacral
5 fused vertebrae
Coccyx
3 to 5 fused vertebrae
The vertebral column performs many functions, including:

Support: The vertebral column supports the head, neck, thorax, abdomen, and pelvis.

Protection: The vertebral column protects the spinal cord and spinal nerves.

Movement: The vertebral column allows for movement and flexibility through intervertebral discs and facet joints.

Sensation: The vertebral column enables sensation by carrying nerve signals from the brain to the body.

The vertebral column’s S-shaped curvature is due to the different flexibility, movement, and joint articulation of each region. The vertebral column is stabilized by intrinsic and extrinsic factors, including ligaments, intervertebral discs, and paraspinal muscles.

15/10/2024

The neck contains many muscles that help you move your head and neck, support your neck and head, and perform other functions:

Anterior neck muscles
These include the platysma, sternocleidomastoid, subclavius, suprahyoids, and infrahyoids:

Platysma: A thin sheet of muscle that covers part of the shoulder and upper chest, and extends up the jaw. It helps with jaw and mouth movements, and tightens the skin in the lower face and neck.

Sternocleidomastoid: One of the largest neck muscles, it helps move the head, extend the neck, and control the temporomandibular joint.

Subclavius: Stabilizes the collarbone when the shoulder and arm move.

Suprahyoids: Four muscles that move the hyoid bone when swallowing and speaking.

Infrahyoids: Four muscles below the hyoid bone that move the larynx (voice box) up and down.

Lateral neck muscles
These include the re**us capitis anterior, re**us capitis lateralis, longus capitis, and longus colli.

Trapezius
Two big muscles on either side of the upper back that help move the head, neck, and upper back, and maintain posture.

Digastric muscle
A pair of muscles that each subdivides into an anterior and posterior belly.

Many neck muscles are superficial, meaning they are close to the skin and can be seen and felt working.