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Medical Laboratory results interpretation, analysis, informative articles.....

28/10/2025

Cross Matching.. Tube method

27/10/2025

Stool Culture...

25/10/2025

Cross Matching

15/09/2025

Forward and Reverse Blood Grouping System

1. Objective
• The objective of the blood grouping test was to determine an individual’s ABO and Rh blood group using both forward (cell grouping) and reverse (serum grouping) methods.
• It was essential for safe blood transfusion, organ transplantation, and pregnancy management.

2. Principle
The test was based on the principle of antigen–antibody reaction.
• Forward grouping (cell grouping): Patient’s red cells were tested with known antisera (Anti-A, Anti-B, Anti-D). Agglutination indicated the presence of corresponding antigen.

• Reverse grouping (serum grouping): Patient’s serum was tested with known reagent red cells (A cells, B cells). Agglutination indicated the presence of corresponding antibody.

• Forward and reverse results complemented each other for confirmation.

3. Materials
1. Patient’s blood sample (EDTA tube for cells, plain tube for serum)
2. Reagent antisera: Anti-A, Anti-B, Anti-D
3. Known red cells: A cells, B cells
4. Glass slides or microplate
5. Test tubes and racks
6. Pasteur pipettes/micropipettes
7. Centrifuge
8. Microscope (to confirm weak agglutination)

4. Procedure
Forward Grouping (Cell Grouping):
• A drop of Anti-A, Anti-B, and Anti-D antisera was placed separately on a slide.
• A drop of patient’s red cell suspension was added to each.
• The mixture was gently rocked and observed for agglutination.
Reverse Grouping (Serum Grouping):
• Patient’s serum was mixed with known A cells and B cells in separate tubes.
• After centrifugation, the mixture was observed for agglutination.
• Results were cross-checked with forward grouping.
5. Result
• Example (Forward Grouping):
o Agglutination with Anti-A → A antigen present.
o Agglutination with Anti-B → B antigen present.
o Agglutination with Anti-D → Rh-positive.
• Example (Reverse Grouping):
o Agglutination with B cells → Anti-B antibody present → Group A.
o Agglutination with A cells → Anti-A antibody present → Group B.
• Concordance between forward and reverse grouping confirmed the blood type (e.g., A+, B–, O+, AB+).

6. Uses
• It was used to determine safe donor–recipient compatibility in transfusion.
• It was useful in antenatal screening for hemolytic disease of the newborn.
• It helped in forensic investigations and medico-legal cases.
• It was applied in organ and tissue transplantation.

7. Conclusion
• The combination of forward and reverse grouping gave an accurate determination of a person’s blood group.
• This dual system minimized errors and ensured safety in transfusion and clinical practices.

06/09/2025

Sickle Cell Test (Sickling Test / Solubility Test)
1. Objective
The objective of the sickle cell test (also known as the sickling test or solubility test) was to screen for sickle cell disease or the sickle cell trait by detecting the presence of sickle-shaped red blood cells under specific conditions.
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2. Principle
The test was based on the principle that hemoglobin S (HbS), found in individuals with sickle cell disease or sickle cell trait, forms insoluble polymers under low oxygen conditions. These polymers distort the red blood cells, causing them to assume a sickle shape, which can be visualized under a microscope. The solubility test uses a reagent to lower oxygen tension and observe the precipitation of hemoglobin S.
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3. Materials
• Fresh blood sample (preferably venous)
• Sodium metabisulfite or phosphate buffer solution
• Microscope and glass slides
• Test tubes and pipettes
• Solubility reagent (sodium metabisulfite solution or similar)
• Control samples (normal hemoglobin and sickle cell disease blood samples)
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4. Procedure
1. A blood sample was collected from the patient.
2. A small amount of blood was mixed with a sickling reagent (sodium metabisulfite solution) in a test tube.
3. The mixture was incubated at room temperature for 10-15 minutes.
4. After incubation, the sample was examined under a microscope for the presence of sickle-shaped red blood cells.
5. For the solubility test: A few drops of the sample were added to a special reagent in a test tube. If HbS was present, the solution would appear turbid or cloudy due to the precipitation of hemoglobin S.
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5. Results
• Positive result (Sickle Cell Disease or Trait):
o Sickle-shaped red blood cells are visible under the microscope, or the solution becomes turbid, indicating the presence of hemoglobin S.
• Negative result:
o No sickle-shaped red blood cells or turbidity observed in the solution.
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6. Uses
• Screening for sickle cell disease and sickle cell trait.
• To diagnose hemoglobinopathies in individuals with suspected sickle cell disease or trait.
• To confirm the presence of HbS in newborns or individuals with a family history of sickle cell disease.
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7. Consultation
• A positive result should be confirmed with hemoglobin electrophoresis or HPLC for definitive diagnosis.
• Genetic counseling and family planning advice are often recommended for individuals with sickle cell trait.
• Patients with sickle cell disease require ongoing medical management to prevent complications such as pain crises, infections, and organ damage.

05/09/2025

High Vaginal Swab (HVS) Test
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1. Objective

The objective of the HVS test was to detect infections in the female genital tract by isolating and identifying bacteria, fungi, or parasites from a vaginal swab.

2. Principle

The test was based on the principle that microorganisms causing vaginal infections (such as Candida albicans, Trichomonas vaginalis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, or bacterial vaginosis organisms) could be detected by direct microscopy, culture, and biochemical tests.

3. Materials

Sterile vaginal swab stick

Transport medium (Amies or Stuart medium)

Glass slides and cover slips

Microscope

Gram stain and saline preparation reagents

Culture media (Blood agar, MacConkey agar, Sabouraud agar, Chocolate agar)

Incubator (35–37°C)

4. Procedure

Sample Collection:

1. A sterile swab was inserted into the posterior fornix of the vagina.

2. The swab was placed into transport medium and sent to the lab.

Microscopic Examination:

1. A smear was prepared from the swab.

2. Saline wet mount was observed for motile Trichomonas vaginalis.

3. KOH preparation was examined for fungal elements (Candida).

4. Gram stain was performed to check bacterial morphology and clue cells (for bacterial vaginosis).

Culture:

1. The swab was streaked onto Blood agar, MacConkey agar, and Sabouraud agar.

2. Plates were incubated at 35–37°C.

3. Growth was identified based on colony morphology, Gram stain, and biochemical tests.

5. Results

Normal (Negative): Predominantly lactobacilli with no pathogenic organisms.

Abnormal (Positive):

Yeast cells/pseudohyphae → Candida albicans

Motile flagellated organisms → Trichomonas vaginalis

Gram-negative diplococci → Neisseria gonorrhoeae

Clue cells → Bacterial vaginosis

6. Uses

To diagnose causes of vaginal discharge, itching, or odor.

To detect sexually transmitted infections (STIs).

To differentiate between bacterial, fungal, and parasitic infections.

To guide appropriate treatment.

7. Consultation

Positive results required consultation with a gynecologist for specific antimicrobial or antifungal therapy.

Sexual partners were also advised treatment in case of STIs.

Negative results but persistent symptoms required further testing, such as PCR for Chlamydia trachomatis or Mycoplasma.

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