Drug-o-pedia, Muzzaffrabad, Muzaffarabad (2025)

11/01/2023

Which medical condition your suffering from .
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19/11/2022

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TREATMENT FOR COMMON ILLNESSES

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PATIENT RESOURCES AND EDUCATIONTREATMENT FOR COMMON ILLNESSES

Chest Cold (Acute Bronchitis)

Common Cold

Ear Infection

Flu (Influenza)

Sinus Infection (Sinusitis)

Skin Infections

Sore Throat

Urinary Tract Infection

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Sore Throat

Español: Dolor de garganta

Is it painful to swallow? Or is your throat scratchy? A virus may be causing your sore throat.

Most sore throats, except for strep throat, do not need antibiotics.

Causes

Causes of sore throat include:

Viruses, like those that cause colds or flu

The bacteria group A strep, which causes strep throat (also called streptococcal pharyngitis)

Allergies

Smoking or exposure to secondhand smoke

Of these, infections from viruses are the most common cause of sore throats.

Strep throat is an infection in the throat and tonsils caused by bacteria. These bacteria are called group A Streptococcus (also called Streptococcus pyogenes).

Symptoms of Sore Throat

A sore throat can make it painful to swallow. A sore throat can also feel dry and scratchy. Sore throat can be a symptom of strep throat, the common cold, allergies, or other upper respiratory tract illness. Sore throat caused by a virus or the bacteria called group A Streptococcus can have similar symptoms.

Sometimes the following symptoms suggest a virus is causing the illness instead of Strep throat:

Cough

Runny nose

Hoarseness (changes in your voice that makes it sound breathy, raspy, or strained)

Conjunctivitis (also called pink eye

17/10/2022

What is Mitosis?
Mitosis, a process of cell duplication, or reproduction, during which one cell gives rise to two genetically identical daughter cells. Strictly applied, the term mitosis is used to describe the duplication and distribution of chromosomes, the structures that carry the genetic information.
Mitosis is absolutely essential to life because it provides new cells for growth and for replacement of worn-out cells. Mitosis may take minutes or hours, depending upon the kind of cells and species of organisms. It is influenced by time of day, temperature, and chemicals.

23/09/2022

Vaginitis
Vaginitis is an inflammation of the va**na that can result in discharge, itching and pain. The cause is usually a change in the balance of va**nal bacteria or an infection. Reduced estrogen levels after menopause and some skin disorders also can cause vaginitis.
Bacterial vaginosis. This results from an overgrowth of the bacteria naturally found in your va**na, which upsets the natural balance.

Yeast infections. These are usually caused by a naturally occurring fungus called Candida albicans.

Trichomoniasis. This is caused by a parasite and is often s*xually transmitted
Symptoms

Vaginitis signs and symptoms can include:

Change in color, odor or amount of discharge from your va**na

Vaginal itching or irritation

Pain during s*x

Painful urination

Light va**nal bleeding or spotting

If you have va**nal discharge, the characteristics of the discharge might indicate the type of vaginitis you have. Examples include:

Bacterial vaginosis. You might develop a grayish-white, foul-smelling discharge. The odor, often described as a fishy odor, might be more obvious after s*x.

Yeast infection. The main symptom is itching, but you might have a thick white discharge that resembles cottage cheese.

Trichomoniasis. An infection called trichomoniasis (trik-o-moe-NIE-uh-sis) can cause a greenish-yellow, sometimes frothy discharge.
Causes

The cause depends on what type of vaginitis you have:

Bacterial vaginosis. This most common type of vaginitis results from a change of the bacteria found in your va**na, upsetting the balance. What causes the imbalance is unknown. It's possible to have bacterial vaginosis without symptoms.

This type of vaginitis seems to be linked to but not caused by s*x — especially if you have multiple s*x partners or a new s*x partner — but it also occurs in women who aren't s*xually active.

Yeast infections. These occur when there's an overgrowth of a fungal organism — usually Candida albicans — in your va**na. C. albicans also causes infections in other moist areas of your body, such as in your mouth (thrush), skin folds and nail beds. The fungus can also cause diaper rash.

Trichomoniasis. This common s*xually transmitted infection is caused by a microscopic, one-celled parasite called Trichomonas va**nalis. This organism spreads during s*x with someone who has the infection.

In men, the organism usually infects the urinary tract, but often it causes no symptoms. In women, trichomoniasis typically infects the va**na, and might cause symptoms. It also increases women's risk of getting other s*xually transmitted infections.

Noninfectious vaginitis. Vaginal sprays, douches, perfumed soaps, scented detergents and s***micidal products can cause an allergic reaction or irritate vulvar and va**nal tissues. Foreign objects, such as toilet paper or forgotten tampons, in the va**na also can irritate va**nal tissues.

Genitourinary syndrome of menopause (va**nal atrophy). Reduced estrogen levels after menopause or surgical removal of your ovaries can cause the va**nal lining to thin, sometimes resulting in va**nal irritation, burning and dryness
**nahealth **nalhygienespray

14/09/2022

What are nail abnormalities?

Healthy nails appear smooth and have consistent coloring. As you age, you may develop vertical ridges, or your nails may be a bit more brittle. This is harmless. Spots due to injury should grow out with the nail.

Abnormalities — such as spots, discoloration, and nail separation — can result from injuries to the fingers and hands, viral warts (periungual warts), infections (onychomycosis), and some medications, such as those used for chemotherapy.

Certain medical conditions can also change the appearance of your fingernails. However, these changes can be difficult to interpret. Your fingernails’ appearance alone isn’t enough to diagnose a specific illness. A doctor will use this information, along with your other symptoms and a physical exam, to make a diagnosis.

You should always consult your doctor if you have any questions about changes in your nails.
Abnormalities of the fingernail

Some changes in your nails are due to medical conditions that need attention. See your doctor if you have any of these symptoms:

discoloration (dark streaks, white streaks, or changes in nail color)

changes in nail shape (curling or clubbing)

changes in nail thickness (thickening or thinning)

nails that become brittle

nails that are pitted

bleeding around nails

swelling or redness around nails

pain around nails

a nail separating from the skin

13/09/2022

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03/09/2022

Dengue fever?
Dengue (DENG-gey) fever is a mosquito-borne illness that occurs in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Mild dengue fever causes a high fever and flu-like symptoms. The severe form of dengue fever, also called dengue hemorrhagic fever, can cause serious bleeding, a sudden drop in blood pressure (shock) and death.
Millions of cases of dengue infection occur worldwide each year. Dengue fever is most common in Southeast Asia, the western Pacific islands, Latin America and Africa. But the disease has been spreading to new areas, including local outbreaks in Europe and southern parts of the United States.

Researchers are working on dengue fever vaccines. For now, in areas where dengue fever is common, the best ways to prevent infection are to avoid being bitten by mosquitoes and to take steps to reduce the mosquito population

Symptoms

Many people experience no signs or symptoms of a dengue infection.

When symptoms do occur, they may be mistaken for other illnesses — such as the flu — and usually begin four to 10 days after you are bitten by an infected mosquito.

Dengue fever causes a high fever — 104 F (40 C) — and any of the following signs and symptoms:

Headache

Muscle, bone or joint pain

Nausea

Vomiting

Pain behind the eyes

Swollen glands

Rash

Most people recover within a week or so. In some cases, symptoms worsen and can become life-threatening. This is called severe dengue,

Severe dengue happens when your blood vessels become damaged and leaky. And the number of clot-forming cells (platelets) in your bloodstream drops. This can lead to shock, internal bleeding, organ failure and even death.

Warning signs of severe dengue fever — which is a life-threatening emergency — can develop quickly. The warning signs usually begin the first day or two after your fever goes away, and may include:

Severe stomach pain

Persistent vomiting

Bleeding from your gums or nose

Blood in your urine, stools or vomit

Bleeding under the skin, which might look like b.

Irritability or restlessness

25/08/2022

Wear mask and stay health avoid corona

25/08/2022

What is Cyanosis in Infants and Children?

Cyanosis refers to a bluish-purple hue to the skin. It is most easily seen where the skin is thin, such as the lips, mouth, earlobes and fingernails.

Cyanosis indicates there may be decreased oxygen attached to red blood cells in the bloodstream. It may suggest a problem with the lungs or heart. Cyanosis is a finding based on what is seen, not by a laboratory test.

Types of Cyanosis

“Acrocyanosis” refers to cyanosis found in the extremities, particularly the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. It can also be seen on the skin around the lips. Acrocyanosis is often normal in babies, as long as no cyanosis is present in the central part of the body. Children may have acrocyanosis when they are cold (such as swimming in cold water) but it should resolve once they are warmed up.

“Central cyanosis” refers to cyanosis found on “central” parts of the body, including the mouth, head and torso. Central cyanosis is never normal in the newborn period, and is almost always linked to a lower amount of oxygen in the blood. It could be due to a problem of the heart, lungs or blood.

Causes of Cyanosis

Central cyanosis occurs because blood changes color based on the presence (or absence) of oxygen. Red blood is oxygen rich, but blood with decreased oxygen turns blue or purple. Red blood flowing through the tiny vessels in the skin produces a healthy red-pink color. Blue blood is oxygen poor and causes a bluish-purple tint to the skin.

Conditions That Cause Cyanosis

Cyanosis is usually caused by abnormalities of the heart, the lungs or the blood. Under normal conditions, after receiving oxygen from the lungs, red (oxygen rich) blood is delivered from the heart to the rest of the body. When it returns to the heart, the blue (oxygen poor) blood is shipped to the lungs to collect more oxygen.

Abnormalities in the lungs can prevent oxygen from entering the blood, which can lead to cyanosis. Some examples of lung abnormalities that can lead to cyanosis include:

Events that limit the amount of oxygen you can breathe in (smoke inhalation from house fires, carbon monoxide poisoning, etc.)

A blockage in the airway that limits the amount of oxygen getting into your lungs (choking on a foreign body, croup, etc.)

Primary lung disease (asthma, pneumonia, bronchiolitis, etc.)

Congenital heart abnormalities can cause some blue (oxygen poor) blood to bypass the lungs altogether and never collect oxygen (see below). Abnormalities in the blood can decrease its ability to absorb oxygen. All of these abnormalities cause blue (oxygen poor) blood to get pumped to the body.

20/08/2022

What is wheezing?
Wheezing is a high-pitched whistling sound made while breathing. It's often associated with difficulty breathing. Wheezing may occur during breathing out (expiration) or breathing in (inspiration).

What Are the Symptoms of Wheezing?

The symptoms of wheezing include a musical or whistling sound and labored breathing, particularly when exhaling; sometimes they're accompanied by a feeling of tightening in the chest. You can hear wheezing more loudly if you plug your ears and exhale rapidly, or by using a stethoscope to listen to breathing over the lungs.
What Causes Wheezing?

The whistling sound happens when air moves through narrowed airways, much like the way a whistle or flute makes music.

Many health problems can cause wheezing, including:

Asthma. This condition, in which your airways narrow, swell, and make extra mucus, can make it hard to breathe.

Allergic reactions to pollen, chemicals, pet dander, dust, foods, or insect stings

Bronchitis

COPD

Cystic fibrosis, which damages your lungs and makes the mucus extra sticky and thick

Obstruction of an airway because you’ve inhaled an object such as a coin

Lung cancer

Congestive heart failure

Pneumonia. This infection inflames the air sacs in your lungs, and they fill with fluid or pus.

Bronchiolitis. This lung infection inflames airways and causes congestion, usually in children.

Emphysema, a lung condition that causes shortness of breath

Smoking or breathing in smoke

Respiratory syncytial virus. This can lead to bronchiolitis.

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)

Vocal cord problems

Sleep apnea
Wheezing Risk Factors

Anyone can have wheezing. It often happens in infants, possibly because of their smaller airways. It’s also common in children who have asthma or bronchiolitis.

Adults who smoke or who have emphysema or heart failure are more likely to have wheezing
Diagnosing the Cause of Wheezing

Your doctor will ask you questions like:

How long have you been wheezing?

Does it happen when you exercise?

Do you wheeze all the time?

Do you wheeze more during the day, or at night?

Does rest help control it?

Do you wheeze when you breathe in, or out, or both in and out?

Do you smoke?

Do certain foods seem to cause your wheezing?

15/08/2022

The most burning question I have been asked on several occasions...

WHAT IS THE BEST DIET FOR HUMANS?

Tough question, right?

Not really, we just complicate it.

While trying to answer this,

Most people try weighing between vegetarian, carnivore, paleo, mediterranean & other diets; miserably missing the point.

What's needed is looking & studying the human body.
Enter into each photos detail for further knowledge

09/08/2022

Weaver syndrome?
Weaver syndrome is a rare condition that is characterized primarily by tall stature. Other signs and symptoms of the condition may include macrocephaly (unusually large head size); intellectual disability; distinctive facial features; camptodactyly (permanently bent digits) of the fingers and/or toes; poor coordination; soft and doughy skin; umbilical hernia; abnormal muscle tone; and a hoarse, low-pitched cry during infancy. Some studies also suggest that people affected by Weaver syndrome may have an increased risk of developing neuroblastoma. Weaver syndrome is usually caused by changes in the EZH2 gene. Although the condition is considered autosomal dominant, most cases occur as de novo genetic changes in people with no family history of the condition
When do symptoms of this disease begin?

The most common ages for symptoms of a disease to begin is called age of onset. Age of onset can vary for different diseases and may be used by a doctor to determine the diagnosis. For some diseases, symptoms may begin in a single age range or several age ranges. For other diseases, symptoms may begin any time during a person's life.

08/08/2022

What is Insomnia??
Insomnia is a common sleep disorder that can make it hard to fall asleep, hard to stay asleep, or cause you to wake up too early and not be able to get back to sleep. You may still feel tired when you wake up. Insomnia can sap not only your energy level and mood but also your health, work performance and quality of life.
How much sleep is enough varies from person to person, but most adults need seven to eight hours a night.

At some point, many adults experience short-term (acute) insomnia, which lasts for days or weeks. It's usually the result of stress or a traumatic event. But some people have long-term (chronic) insomnia that lasts for a month or more. Insomnia may be the primary problem, or it may be associated with other medical conditions or medications.

You don't have to put up with sleepless nights. Simple changes in your daily habits can often help.

Symptoms

Insomnia symptoms may include:

Difficulty falling asleep at night

Waking up during the night

Waking up too early

Not feeling well-rested after a night's sleep

Daytime tiredness or sleepiness

Irritability, depression or anxiety

Difficulty paying attention, focusing on tasks or remembering

Increased errors or accidents

Ongoing worries about sleep

When to see a doctor

If insomnia makes it hard for you to function during the day, see your doctor to identify the cause of your sleep problem and how it can be treated. If your doctor thinks you could have a sleep disorder, you might be referred to a sleep center for special testing.

05/08/2022

Pressure in the Head: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatments
A number of conditions can cause a sensation of tightness, weight, or pressure in the head. These sensations can range in intensity from mild to severe.

Most conditions that result in head pressure aren’t cause for alarm. Common ones include tension headaches, migraines, conditions that affect the sinuses, and ear infections.

Abnormal or severe head pressure is sometimes a sign of a serious medical condition, such as a brain tumor or aneurysm. However, these problems are rare.
Where do you feel pressure in your head?

Do you feel pressure all over your head? Is the pain restricted to your forehead, temples, or a single side? The location of your pain can help your doctor identify potential causes.

Causes of head pressure and pain

Pressure, aches, and pain in the head have many potential causes. Tension headaches and migraines are among the most common.

Tension headaches

What it feels like: Pain from tension headaches is generally mild to moderate in severity. Some people describe it as an elastic band squeezing their head.

What it is: Also known as tension-type headaches (TTH), tension headaches are the most commonTrusted Source type of headache. They affect an estimated 42 percentTrusted Source of the global population. However, their causes aren’t well-understood.

Causes:

stress

anxiety

depression

poor posture

Sinus headaches and other sinus conditions

What it feels like: A constant pressure behind your forehead, cheekbones, nose, jaw, or ears. It will also come along with other symptoms, such as nasal discharge.

What it is: Your sinuses are a series of connected cavities behind your forehead, eyes, cheeks, and nose. When the sinuses become inflamed, they produce excess mucus, which can lead to head pressure. This is also known as a sinusitis headache. True sinus headaches are rare; it’s easy to mistake a migraine for one.

Causes:

allergies

colds and flu

sinus infections (sinusitis)

Ear conditions

What it feels like: Dull but constant pressure in the temples, ears, jaw, or side of the head. Ear conditions can affect one or both sides of the head.

What it is: Ear infections and earwax blockages are common ear conditions that can cause head pressure with ear pain.

Causes:

ear barotrauma

ear infections

earwax blockage

labyrinthitis

ruptured eardrum

outer ear infection (swimmer’s ear)

Migraines

What it feels like: Migraine pain is usually described as pulsing or throbbing. It typically occurs on one side of the head, and it can be so intense that it’s disabling. Migraines are often accompanied by additional symptoms, such as nausea and vomiting, and sensitivity to light and sound.

What it is: Migraines are a common type of headache. They first appear in adolescence or early adulthood and tend to reoccur. Migraines often include warning signs and progress through distinct stages.

Causes: The causes of migraines aren’t well-understood, although genetic and environmental factors appear to be involved.

Other headaches

What they feel like: Pressure, pulsing, or throbbing all over or in a specific area of the head. Some headaches are accompanied by eye pain.

01/08/2022

what is hypertension and it's causes ?
Hypertension is abnormally high blood pressure in the arteries, which are the blood vessels that carry blood from the heart to the rest of the body. As the heart beats, it forces blood through the arteries to deliver nutrients and oxygen to the rest of the body. The strength of the blood pushing against the artery walls is blood pressure, which is measured in units called millimeters of mercury (mmHg). The top number in a blood pressure reading is the pressure when the heart pumps (systolic blood pressure), and the bottom number is the pressure between heart beats (diastolic blood pressure). In adults, a normal blood pressure measurement is about 120/80 mmHg. Blood pressure is considered high when the measurement is 130/80 mmHg or greater.

Hypertension usually has no symptoms, and many affected individuals do not know they have the condition. However, hypertension is a major risk factor for heart disease, stroke, kidney failure, and eye problems. When blood pressure is elevated, the heart and arteries have to work harder than normal to pump blood through the body. The extra work thickens the muscles of the heart and arteries and hardens or damages artery walls. As a result, the flow of blood and oxygen to the heart and other organs is reduced. Damage to the heart caused by the extra work and a lack of oxygen causes heart disease. In addition, damage to the arteries increases the risk of blood clots that block the flow of blood to the heart, causing a heart attack, or to the brain, causing a type of stroke known as an ischemic stroke Another type of stroke, called a hemorrhagic stroke, can occur when a weakened blood vessel in the brain bursts. Damage to blood vessels in the kidneys impairs their ability to filter waste and remove fluid, leading to kidney failure. Problems with blood flow in the arteries of the eyes can lead to vision loss.

In rare cases, dangerously high blood pressure can cause severe headaches, confusion, shortness of breath, chest pain, or nosebleeds.

In about 95 percent of cases, the cause of hypertension is unknown. These cases are classified as essential hypertension. When hypertension results from an underlying condition, such as blood vessel defects that reduce blood flow; kidney disorders, which alter the amount of fluids and salts in the body; or problems with hormone-producing glands called the adrenal glands or the , it is classified as secondary hypertension. Hypertension is a key feature of some rare genetic disorders, including familial hyperaldosteronism, pseudohypoaldosteronism type 2, Liddle syndrome, and tumors known as paragangliomas.

27/07/2022

Stem cells: What they are and what they do.

What are stem cells?

Stem cells are the body's raw materials — cells from which all other cells with specialized functions are generated. Under the right conditions in the body or a laboratory, stem cells divide to form more cells called daughter cells.

These daughter cells become either new stem cells or specialized cells (differentiation) with a more specific function, such as blood cells, brain cells, heart muscle cells or bone cells. No other cell in the body has the natural ability to generate new cell types.

Why is there such an interest in stem cells?

Researchers hope stem cell studies can help to:

Increase understanding of how diseases occur. By watching stem cells mature into cells in bones, heart muscle, nerves, and other organs and tissue, researchers may better understand how diseases and conditions develop.

Generate healthy cells to replace cells affected by disease (regenerative medicine). Stem cells can be guided into becoming specific cells that can be used in people to regenerate and repair tissues that have been damaged or affected by disease.

People who might benefit from stem cell therapies include those with spinal cord injuries, type 1 diabetes, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, heart disease, stroke, burns, cancer and osteoarthritis.

Stem cells may have the potential to be grown to become new tissue for use in transplant and regenerative medicine. Researchers continue to advance the knowledge on stem cells and their applications in transplant and regenerative medicine.

Test new drugs for safety and effectiveness. Before using investigational drugs in people, researchers can use some types of stem cells to test the drugs for safety and quality. This type of testing will most likely first have a direct impact on drug development for cardiac toxicity testing.

New areas of study include the effectiveness of using human stem cells that have been programmed into tissue-specific cells to test new drugs. For the testing of new drugs to be accurate, the cells must be programmed to acquire properties of the type of cells targeted by the drug. Techniques to program cells into specific cells are under study.

For instance, nerve cells could be generated to test a new drug for a nerve disease. Tests could show whether the new drug had any effect on the cells and whether the cells were harmed.

Where do stem cells come from?

There are several sources of stem cells:

Embryonic stem cells. These stem cells come from embryos that are 3 to 5 days old. At this stage, an embryo is called a blastocyst and has about 150 cells.

These are pluripotent (ploo-RIP-uh-tunt) stem cells, meaning they can divide into more stem cells or can become any type of cell in the body. This versatility allows embryonic stem cells to be used to regenerate or repair diseased tissue and organs.

Adult stem cells. These stem cells are found in small numbers in most adult tissues, such as bone marrow or fat. Compared with embryonic stem cells, adult stem cells have a more limited ability to give rise to various cells of the body.

Until recently, researchers thought adult stem cells could create only similar types of cells. For instance, researchers thought that stem cells residing in the bone marrow could give rise only to blood cells.

However, emerging evidence suggests that adult stem cells may be able to create various types of cells. For instance, bone marrow stem cells may be able to create bone or heart muscle cells.

This research has led to early-stage clinical trials to test usefulness and safety in people. For example, adult stem cells are currently being tested in people with neurological or heart disease.

Adult cells altered to have properties of embryonic stem cells. Scientists have successfully transformed regular adult cells into stem cells using genetic reprogramming. By altering the genes in the adult cells, researchers can reprogram the cells to act similarly to embryonic stem cells.

This new technique may allow use of reprogrammed cells instead of embryonic stem cells and prevent immune system rejection of the new stem cells. However, scientists don't yet know whether using altered adult cells will cause adverse effects in humans.

Researchers have been able to take regular connective tissue cells and reprogram them to become functional heart cells. In studies, animals with heart failure that were injected with new heart cells experienced improved heart function and survival time.

Perinatal stem cells. Researchers have discovered stem cells in amniotic fluid as well as umbilical cord blood. These stem cells have the ability to change into specialized cells.

Amniotic fluid fills the sac that surrounds and protects a developing fetus in the uterus. Researchers have identified stem cells in samples of amniotic fluid drawn from pregnant women for testing or treatment — a procedure called amniocentesis.

Why is there a controversy about using embryonic stem cells?

Embryonic stem cells are obtained from early-stage embryos — a group of cells that forms when eggs are fertilized with s***m at an in vitro fertilization clinic. Because human embryonic stem cells are extracted from human embryos, several questions and issues have been raised about the ethics of embryonic stem cell research.

The National Institutes of Health created guidelines for human stem cell research in 2009. The guidelines define embryonic stem cells and how they may be used in research, and include recommendations for the donation of embryonic stem cells. Also, the guidelines state that embryonic stem cells from embryos created by in vitro fertilization can be used only when the embryo is no longer needed.

Where do these embryos come from?

The embryos being used in embryonic stem cell research come from eggs that were fertilized at in vitro fertilization clinics but never implanted in women's uteruses. The stem cells are donated with informed consent from donors. The stem cells can live and grow in special solutions in test tubes or petri dishes in laboratories.

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