Forward Focus Therapy, LLC

05/03/2026

Adoption: Power, Policy, and Lived Experience

Adoption creates family. It also creates loss, rejection, guilt and shame, grief, identity, intimacy, and control.

Adoptees may be at higher risk for difficulty when adoption erases the past, or grief and loss are minimized. Risk also increases when records or identity information are restricted, when transracial or cultural needs are unsupported, when adoptive parents are unprepared for trauma and attachment needs, or when support ends after finalization.

Openness, honest communication, access to information, and continued connection when safe are repeatedly identified as important protective factors.

In Pennsylvania, once an adoption is finalized:

If there is no formal agreement, adoptive parents have full legal authority. They can decide whether any contact happens at all—including visits, calls, or updates.

This is why “open adoption” is not guaranteed, and why connection can ultimately depend on adoptive parent decisions—not the child.

Adoption is also a system shaped by power and policy. In private infant adoption, significant financial costs exist, expectant parents may face pressure—especially when resources are limited—and there are real power imbalances in decision-making. These concerns have been raised in research and policy analysis. (National Academies; Child Welfare Information Gateway; Smolin; Briggs)

Some adoptees are not asking for better messaging—they are questioning the structure itself. They ask why belonging requires legal erasure, why connection is optional, and why records are still restricted. Some want reform. Some want alternatives like guardianship. Some want adoption rethought entirely.

Adoption can be the best available option in some situations. And it can still carry loss, power, and lifelong impact. Both can be true.

Sources:Child Welfare Information GatewayNational Academies of Sciences (Parenting Matters, 2016)Donaldson Adoption Institute (Openness in Adoption, 2012)American Academy of Pediatrics (2012)Smolin (2006)Briggs (Somebody’s Children)Vandivere, Malm & Radel (2009)Miller et al. (2000)

05/03/2026

Adoption: Creating Family, Carrying Loss

Adoption creates a permanent legal parent-child relationship. In Pennsylvania, adoptive parents become the child’s legal parents, and the original parents’ legal rights are terminated.

Adoption is often described as permanency, safety, and belonging. Research shows it can provide those things—but also recognizes adoption as a lifelong experience involving loss, grief, identity, and attachment complexity.

Potential benefits: adoption can provide legal permanency when a child cannot safely return home; reduce instability after foster care; and is associated with improved safety and developmental outcomes compared to long-term foster care for many children.(Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2019; ACF/OPRE NSCAW Adoption Follow-Up Study, 2017)

Potential costs: adoption permanently severs the original legal parent-child relationship. Research and clinical literature document that adoptees may experience grief, identity disruption, loss of family connections, and adoption-related stigma—even in stable, loving homes.(Child Welfare Information Gateway, Impact of Adoption, 2013; Brodzinsky, 2011; Baden, 2016)

What research suggests supports better outcomes:
stable, well-supported placements
adoptive parents trained in trauma, attachment, and identity
honest communication about origins
maintained connections to siblings, culture, and safe family relationships
ongoing post-adoption support
openness in adoption when safe

Research consistently shows openness and access to information are associated with better identity development and psychological adjustment.(Grotevant & McRoy, 1998; Grotevant et al., 2013; Donaldson Adoption Institute, Openness in Adoption, 2012)

Children—especially older youth—should be meaningfully involved in permanency decisions. Youth who report having a voice in planning and relationships (not just legal status) show better outcomes.(Jim Casey Youth Opportunities Initiative, 2013; ACF “Youth Involvement in Permanency Planning,” 2019)

Adoption can provide stability and permanency.

It can also involve loss, identity work, and lifelong complexity.

Both can be true.

Sources

Child Welfare Information Gateway (2013, 2019) – Impact of Adoption; Adoption
ACF/OPRE (2017) – NSCAW II Adoption Follow-Up Study
Brodzinsky, D. (2011) – Children’s Adjustment to Adoption
Baden, A. (2016) – Do You Know Your Real Parents?
Grotevant, H. & McRoy, R. (1998; 2013 follow-ups) – Openness in Adoption research
Donaldson Adoption Institute (2012) – Openness in Adoption
Jim Casey Youth Opportunities Initiative (2013) – Youth Permanency Research
American Academy of Pediatrics (2012) – Health Care of Adopted Children
Vandivere, Malm & Radel (2009) – Adoption USA
Miller et al. (2000) – Adoptee mental health utilization research

05/03/2026

Guardianship: What It Promises — and What It Delivers

Guardianship gives a trusted adult legal authority to care for a child and make decisions for them, without terminating the parents’ rights. Research on kinship care and guardianship suggests children often do best when they can achieve stability without unnecessary disconnection from family.

The ideals: provide a stable, long-term home; allow a trusted adult (often a family member) to make decisions; preserve the child’s legal connection to parents; maintain family relationships and identity; avoid termination of parental rights; reduce system involvement compared to foster care.

What research suggests: guardianship is most supported when the child is already safely placed with family or a trusted caregiver; the caregiver relationship is stable; reunification is not currently possible; adoption would create unnecessary loss; the child is older and does not want adoption; and maintaining relationships with parents, siblings, extended family, culture, school, or community supports well-being. In these situations, guardianship can offer permanency without requiring the loss of family identity.

What often happens: stability depends heavily on the caregiver and family system; parents retain rights, which can create ongoing complexity or conflict; boundaries between parent and guardian roles can be unclear; children may experience loyalty conflicts or divided attachment; uncertainty can remain if the arrangement is seen as changeable; parents may re-enter inconsistently; supports may be limited outside subsidized arrangements; children may feel “in between”—not fully returned home, but not fully permanent.

Subsidized guardianship (SPLC): used when a child was in foster care and cannot return home; provides financial support to the caregiver; reduces court oversight compared to foster care; preserves parental rights.

Guardianship can offer continuity, connection, and care. It can also involve ambiguity, conflict, and evolving family roles. Both can be true.

Sources: Child Welfare Information Gateway (Kinship Guardianship as a Permanency Option; Pennsylvania Kinship Guardianship); Casey Family Programs (Guardianship Assistance Policy and Implementation); PA DHS/OCYF Title IV-E Manual, Chapter 4 (SPLC Policy).

04/21/2026

Not All “Placements” Are the Same: How Pennsylvania Decides Where Children Belong

When a child can’t safely remain with their parents, the decision about where and how they are raised isn’t just legal—it shapes their:

sense of stability
identity and family connection
attachment and belonging
long-term emotional outcomes

In Pennsylvania, there are several different paths a child may be placed in. They can look similar on the surface—but they function very differently.

Foster Care (Dependency System / CYS)The child is placed in care through the state due to safety concerns.
The state has legal custody
Foster parents provide temporary care
Parents still have rights, but they are limited and overseen
The court reviews the case regularly
The primary goal is usually reunification

AdoptionAdoption creates a permanent legal family.
Parents’ rights are terminated
Adoptive parents become the child’s full legal parents
The child becomes a permanent member of that family in every legal sense

Guardianship (Private / Orphans’ Court)A guardian is given legal authority to raise the child and make decisions about their care.
The child lives with the guardian
Parents keep their legal rights
The guardian handles school, medical, and day-to-day decisions
The arrangement can be changed through the court

Subsidized Permanent Legal Custodianship (SPLC)(Pennsylvania’s form of subsidized guardianship through the foster system)
Used when a child cannot return home, but adoption is not the right fit
Custody is transferred to a caregiver (often a relative or foster parent)
Parents keep their rights
The caregiver receives financial support
There is less ongoing court involvement than foster care

These categories matter because they define:
who makes decisions for the child
whether parents remain legally connected
how stable or changeable the placement is
And for kids, those differences are not abstract—they are lived every day.

04/04/2026

Current kids in care have voices.
They deserve agency — even when we don’t like what they say, or what they want.

Kids in care consistently say they want:
to be heard
to have a say in decisions about their lives
to be included in what happens to them

One qualitative study of older youth in foster care identified three core needs in their own words:
Agency
Genuine support
Emotional connection

They are not asking to be managed.
They are asking to be included.

Research also shows that kids define family in ways that go beyond legal labels.

They talk about:
• who shows up
• who stays
• who they feel connected to
• where they feel connection
If we are going to talk about what’s best for children,
we have to start with their voices.

Even when it’s uncomfortable.
Even when it challenges our beliefs.

That’s what agency actually means.

Sources:
• Samuels et al., Children and Youth Services Review (youth perspectives: agency, support, connection)
• Boddy et al., Children and Youth Services Review (how foster youth define family)
• ACF Youth Engagement Team (youth voice in permanency decisions)

04/04/2026

What support do guardians actually need?

Guardianship is often talked about as if it’s a simple legal fix.

But in real life, guardians usually need a lot more than a court order.

They may need:
• financial support
• help navigating schools and healthcare
• legal clarity
• trauma-informed guidance
• respite, community, and practical help

Because taking legal responsibility for a child is one thing.

Sustaining that care over time is another.

In many cases, guardians are stepping in during crisis, grief, instability, or family disruption.

That means they are not just caring for a child.
They are often managing:
loss
transitions
complicated family dynamics
and systems that may not be built for them

04/03/2026

How does guardianship fit into the bigger picture of permanency?

When a child can’t safely stay with their parents, the goal becomes permanency — a stable, long-term place to grow up.

There are a few different ways the system tries to do that:
• Reunification
• Guardianship
• Adoption
• Long-term foster care

Guardianship is one of those options — not the only one.

It’s typically used when:
Reunification isn’t possible
A child is already living with a stable caregiver
That situation needs to be made legally secure

What it offers:
Day-to-day stability
A committed adult raising the child
Legal authority for that adult to act as caregiver

04/03/2026

What kinds of children tend to benefit most from guardianship?

Guardianship tends to work best when a child needs stability without changing their existing family structure.

Common situations:
A child is already living long-term with a caregiver
Stability needs to be made official and protected
Continuity (home, school, relationships) matters most
The child has a clear sense of their family identity
Older youth who want stability without redefining family roles

04/03/2026

What does guardianship actually look like day-to-day for kids?

Day-to-day life in guardianship often looks very familiar.

Kids:
Go to school
Eat meals with their caregiver
Do homework, activities, bedtime routines

Their guardian is the one who:
• signs school forms
• takes them to doctor appointments
• sets rules and provides structure
• shows up for the everyday moments
In many homes, it feels like a typical family life

Especially when:
• the child already knew the caregiver
• routines are consistent
• the home is stable

To the outside world, it may look like:
a grandparent household
an aunt raising a child
a family friend stepping in

At the same time, there can be small differences in daily life

Kids may:
hear different language used (“guardian” instead of “parent”)
notice differences on school forms or paperwork
have moments where their family structure is explained or clarified

These things aren’t constant — but they can be part of the experience.

04/03/2026

What kinds of families use guardianship?

Guardianship is most often used in families where a child is already being raised by someone other than their parent.

The most common situations:

Kinship care
Grandparents, aunts/uncles, older siblings
The child already knows and trusts the caregiver

Fictive kin / chosen family
Close family friends, godparents, trusted adults
Family” built through relationship, not biology

Parents unable to parent full-time
• Illness, incarceration, instability
• Another adult steps in for daily care

Long-term informal caregiving
• A temporary situation becomes permanent
• Guardianship provides legal authority and stability

Guardianship is usually used when there is already:
a committed adult
an existing relationship
a stable caregiving situation

It doesn’t create a family — it formalizes and protects one that already exists.

04/03/2026

What does the research say about guardianship?

First: guardianship is a real permanency option, not a temporary band-aid.

The research and policy literature describe guardianship as a legal arrangement meant to give a child stability, day-to-day care, and long-term commitment with an adult caregiver, often a relative or other trusted adult.

What the research most consistently supports is this:

Guardianship seems to work best when there is already a strong relationship in place.

That is why so much of the research focuses on:
grandparents raising grandchildren
aunts, uncles, or older siblings stepping in
kinship caregivers who already know the child
situations where continuity matters

In those settings, guardianship can help preserve:
attachment to familiar caregivers
family and community continuity
a child’s sense of identity and history
day-to-day stability

Another important point:

The strongest guardianship research is in kinship care.

That means we know the most about guardianship when children are being raised by relatives or people who are already part of their world.

Research has also found that in kinship placements, guardianship can be quite stable over time and, in some studies, looks similar to kin adoption on continuity/stability.

And one more thing the research makes clear:

Guardianship tends to work best when caregivers have:
• financial support
• legal clarity
• trauma-informed guidance
• school and service coordination
• practical help, not just responsibility

So when people ask, “What does the research say about guardianship?” the clearest answer is:

It is a meaningful permanency option, especially in kinship and relationship-based caregiving situations, and it appears most effective when children already have a trusted caregiver and that caregiver is well supported.

Key Research & Sources on Guardianship

1. Child Welfare Information Gateway (U.S. Dept. of Health & Human Services)
• Kinship Guardianship as a Permanency Option
https://www.childwelfare.gov/resources/kinship-guardianship-permanency-option/

Nuffield Family Justice Observatory
• Special Guardianship: A Review of the Evidence
https://www.nuffieldfjo.org.uk/resource/special-guardianship-a-review-of-the-evidence

• Contact and Child Well-being Review
https://www.nuffieldfjo.org.uk/resource/contact-well-being

3. Koh, E., Rolock, N., Cross, T., & Eblen-Manning, A. (2017)
• What Explains Instability in Foster Care? Comparison of Kinship Guardianship and Adoption
(Child Abuse & Neglect)
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0145213417302569

4. Children and Youth Services Review (2023)
• Systematic Review of Permanency Outcomes for Youth in Foster Care
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0190740923005625

5. U.S. Administration for Children & Families (ACF / OPRE)
• Understanding Post-Adoption and Guardianship Instability
https://acf.gov/opre/report/understanding-post-adoption-and-guardianship-instability-children-and-youth-who-exit

For children living in foster care, adoption and guardianship are important permanency outcomes when reunification with their biological family is not an option. Most children living in adoptive or guardianship families do not reenter state custody after adoption or guardianship finalization. Howeve...