Scott E. Ewing, DO, Interventional Cardiologist

Scott E. Ewing, DO, Interventional Cardiologist Scott Ewing, DO is a Interventional Cardiologist who provides a wide range of services and spends ti

01/05/2026

WHY IS THE ORAL POLIO VACCINE USED/NOT USED?

Oral polio vaccine (OPV) is a live, weakened (attenuated) poliovirus vaccine given as drops by mouth. It has been used so widely because it’s exceptionally effective at stopping person-to-person spread, especially where transmission is primarily fecal–oral. OPV briefly replicates in the gut and generates strong mucosal (intestinal) immunity, which helps reduce stool shedding and onward transmission. It’s also practical for mass campaigns—needle-free, fast to administer, and generally low-cost—and it has been central to the greater than 99% global reduction in polio since the eradication initiative began in 1988. The Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI) notes that over the past decade, more than 10 billion OPV doses have been administered to nearly 3 billion children, helping prevent over 16 million polio cases.

By contrast, the inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) is an injected, killed-virus vaccine. IPV is excellent at preventing paralytic polio (systemic protection), but it generally produces less intestinal immunity than OPV, meaning that a person vaccinated with IPV may still develop an asymptomatic gut infection after exposure and can still shed the virus in their stool. That difference matters most when the urgent public-health goal is to interrupt transmission quickly in an outbreak setting, which is where OPV’s gut-level immunity is a major advantage.

OPV is not used (or is used far less) in polio-free, high-coverage countries because its main downside—though rare—is real: since it’s live, it can uncommonly cause paralytic polio. One mechanism is vaccine-associated paralytic polio (VAPP), a sporadic adverse event in a vaccine recipient or a close contact. In the United States, when OPV was used, VAPP averaged about 8 cases per year during 1980–1999 (about 1 case per 2.4 million OPV doses distributed). By 1973, the U.S. was reporting more VAPP than paralytic disease from wild poliovirus, and as wild polio disappeared domestically, the remaining paralytic risk increasingly came from OPV—one of the reasons the U.S. transitioned to all-IPV in 2000 (and OPV is no longer available in the U.S.).

The other major reason OPV is de-emphasized in polio-free settings is vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV). In communities with low immunization coverage, the weakened OPV virus can circulate long enough to accumulate genetic changes and regain neurovirulence, resulting in outbreaks of circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV). In the WHO Polio IHR Emergency Committee’s most recent summary, 463 cVDPV cases were reported globally in 2024, and 143 cVDPV cases were reported in 2025. Over the same period, wild poliovirus type 1 (WPV1) caused 99 cases in 2024 and 28 cases in 2025, largely in Afghanistan and Pakistan.

To reduce the risk of “reversion,” newer oral vaccines have been developed for outbreak response—most notably novel OPV type 2 (nOPV2), designed to be more genetically stable than older OPV2 formulations. WHO reported that approximately 2 billion doses of nOPV2 have been administered since its introduction in 2021, and noted that nOPV2 shows greater genetic stability and a lower risk of reversion than Sabin OPV2—though outbreak control still ultimately depends on reaching high coverage quickly, because low coverage is what allows any poliovirus (wild or vaccine-derived) to circulate.

In summary, OPV is still used because it’s one of the most effective tools for rapidly halting transmission, especially during outbreaks and in settings where poliovirus spreads easily. But once polio is eliminated and vaccination coverage is high, IPV becomes the safer long-term strategy because it cannot cause VAPP or cVDPV—so many countries prefer IPV in the “polio-free” phase, while OPV remains a critical tool in the “stop transmission now” phase.
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01/02/2026

Do Vaccines Prevent Cancer?

Yes—some vaccines clearly prevent cancer, but they do it indirectly: they prevent specific cancer-causing infections that, years later, drive malignant transformation. The two best examples are HPV and hepatitis B vaccination. Globally, cervical cancer remains a major burden (globally 660,000 new cases each year and ~350,000 deaths in 2022). The WHO emphasizes that it is largely preventable through HPV vaccination, combined with screening. And globally, 254 million people were living with chronic hepatitis B in 2022, with 1.2 million new infections per year, and 1.1 million deaths in 2022—mostly from cirrhosis and HCC. Nearly 100% preventable with HBV vaccination.

HPV vaccination prevents cancer by blocking persistent high-risk HPV infection. Persistent infection with oncogenic HPV types causes essentially all cervical cancers, and the highest-risk types (especially HPV 16 and 18) account for a large share of cases (~76% of cervical cancers are linked to HPV 16/18). In the United States, the CDC estimates that annually, there are nearly 200,000 diagnoses of cervical pre-cancer, about 10,800 diagnoses of cervical cancer caused by HPV, and about 4,000 deaths from cervical cancer. HPV vaccination can prevent over 90% of these HPV-linked cancers. These benefits are also seen globally. In England’s national program, cervical cancer rates were estimated to be 87% lower among those offered vaccination at ages 12–13, with a 97% reduction in pre-cancerous changes, corresponding to an estimated 448 fewer cervical cancers and 17,235 fewer pre-cancerous changes by mid-2019 in the vaccinated population.

Hepatitis B vaccination prevents liver cancer by preventing chronic HBV infection, which can lead to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). In the US, there are approximately 30,000 new cases of HCC each year, with a dismal 5-year survival rate of approximately 20%. Globally, 254 million people were living with chronic hepatitis B in 2022, with 1.1 million deaths in 2022—mostly from cirrhosis and HCC. The vaccine offers nearly 100% protection when used appropriately. The highest rates of HCC in the US are seen in American Indian, Alaska Native, and Hispanic populations

Vaccines can also be used to treat cancer by training the immune system to recognize tumor antigens in someone who already has cancer. One FDA-approved example is sipuleucel-T (Provenge) for asymptomatic or minimally symptomatic metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Sipuleucel-T improves median overall survival by 4.1 months (25.8 vs 21.7 months), with a hazard ratio for death of 0.78, and 36-month survival of 31.7% vs 23.0%. Not a big improvement, but certainly a start. Another long-standing “vaccine-like” immunotherapy is intravesical BCG (derived from the TB vaccine strain), used for non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer to reduce the risk of recurrence and progression, although it’s not a preventive cancer vaccine in the sense of HPV or HBV.

Finally, the “new wave” includes personalized mRNA neoantigen therapies—still experimental, but now supported by randomized data in at least one setting. In the KEYNOTE-942 melanoma study, individualized mRNA-4157 (V940) plus pembrolizumab showed longer recurrence-free survival compared to pembrolizumab alone, with 18-month survival rates of 79% versus 62%, and fewer recurrence/death events in 22% versus 40% of patients.

So YES, vaccines can prevent cancer—most convincingly when the cancer is driven by a preventable infection (HPV, HBV)—and some vaccines can help treat cancer, but those therapeutic approaches are specialized, cancer-type specific, and (outside a few established examples) still evolving.
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01/01/2026

Do Vaccines Cause “Turbo Cancer”?

“Turbo cancer” sounds scary, but it’s a meme and not a recognized medical diagnosis. There is no good evidence that vaccines, including COVID-19 vaccines, are causing a new, unique kind of ultra-aggressive “turbo cancer.” People use the term online to describe cancers that seem to appear suddenly, progress very quickly, or occur in younger-than-expected people, especially when the diagnosis happens after vaccination. In practice, those cases are usually well-known aggressive cancers—such as acute leukemias, high-grade lymphomas, pancreatic cancer, glioblastoma, or inflammatory breast cancer—that oncologists have been seeing and treating long before COVID or mRNA vaccines existed.

A significant reason the “turbo cancer” idea gained traction is simple timing. Cancer is often present and growing silently for months or years before it becomes noticeable and causes symptoms. When someone gets vaccinated and is diagnosed with cancer a few weeks or months later, it feels natural to link the two: healthy → vaccine → cancer. But in reality, the tumor was already there, and the diagnosis just happened to fall after the shot. When billions of people are vaccinated, some will, purely by chance, be diagnosed with cancer shortly afterward—that’s just how large numbers work. Social media then amplifies dramatic stories: a seemingly healthy 30- or 40-something with an aggressive cancer becomes a viral post, often framed as “since the jab.” If you mostly see those outlier stories, it can create the illusion of a new pattern, even if overall cancer rates don’t show a corresponding spike.

Biologically, the claims that mRNA vaccines or spike protein are causing “turbo cancer” don’t match what we know. The mRNA vaccine is short-lived and breaks down within days; it does not integrate into human DNA. The spike protein is expressed transiently and cleared; it’s a strong antigen but not a carcinogen. Immune activation from vaccination could, at most, unmask a pre-existing illness by bringing someone into contact with the healthcare system, but that’s different from causing the cancer in the first place. If vaccines were truly driving a new wave of aggressive cancers, we would expect to see clear, consistent signals in cancer registries and large health system data: sharp increases in overall cancer incidence after mass vaccination, particularly in age groups that were heavily vaccinated, and similar patterns across multiple countries. To date, large-scale analyses have not revealed a “vaccine-linked” surge in cancer.

To be fair, medicine should never dismiss safety questions out of hand. Ongoing surveillance—through cancer registries, pharmacoepidemiology, vaccine safety systems, and national databases—continues to look for any unexpected patterns. It’s possible that future research could reveal a signal in a very specific subgroup or tumor type, but that is very different from the broad claim that vaccines are causing widespread “turbo cancer.” The evidence does not support that narrative.

“Turbo cancer” is a social media label placed on cancers that feel sudden or aggressive, not a new entity created by vaccines. Cancers like this have always existed; the combination of coincidence, fear, and online amplification makes them look like something new.

01/01/2026

WHY DO NEWBORNS GET ERYTHROMYCIN IN THEIR EYES?

Right after birth, babies in the U.S. commonly receive erythromycin eye ointment to prevent a serious eye infection called ophthalmia neonatorum, primarily caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae (gonorrhea) contracted during delivery. Without prophylaxis, 30–50% of babies born to mothers with untreated gonorrhea can develop severe eye infection, which can rapidly lead to corneal damage and permanent blindness.

Before routine eye treatment and maternal STI screening, gonococcal eye disease was a major cause of childhood blindness; now, in countries that use these measures, it has become very rare.

Erythromycin ointment is placed in each eye once within the first 1–2 hours after birth. Side effects are usually mild, such as temporary redness or irritation and brief blurring of vision, and serious reactions are extremely uncommon. The ointment is less effective against chlamydia (which is mainly prevented by prenatal screening and treatment), but it provides an important “safety net” for babies whose mothers may have unrecognized or untreated gonorrhea.

In summary, a single dose of erythromycin eye ointment is a low-risk, high-benefit step that significantly reduces the risk of a rare but potentially blinding eye infection in newborns.

12/29/2025

MUMPS – SHOULD MY CHILD BE VACCINATED?

Mumps is a viral illness, best known for causing puffy cheeks and a swollen jaw from inflammation of the salivary (parotid) glands. Symptoms often start with fever, headache, muscle aches, tiredness, and loss of appetite, followed by the characteristic facial swelling. Mumps spreads through respiratory droplets—coughing, sneezing, sharing cups or utensils. There is no specific antiviral treatment; only supportive care is available.

Before the mumps vaccine was introduced in the U.S. in 1967, there were an estimated 186,000 mumps cases reported each year (and likely many more that went unreported). The widespread use of the MMR vaccine (measles, mumps, rubella) resulted in a decline of more than 99% in reported mumps cases compared to the pre-vaccine era. Even so, mumps has not disappeared. Since 2006, the U.S. has experienced intermittent outbreaks, often in settings with close, prolonged contact, such as college dorms, sports teams, camps, or religious communities. In some of these outbreaks, several thousand cases were reported in a single year, even in populations that were mostly vaccinated, because mumps immunity can wane over time.

WHAT’S THE BIG DEAL?

Most people recover fully, but mumps can cause serious complications. These include orchitis (painful testicular swelling, which can rarely lead to infertility), oophoritis (ovarian inflammation), aseptic meningitis, encephalitis, and, in rare cases, hearing loss. Before vaccination, mumps was a leading cause of viral meningitis and acquired deafness in children; those complications are now much less common in highly vaccinated countries.

BOTTOM LINE

The MMR vaccine is the best way to protect against mumps—for both individuals and communities. Two doses of MMR are approximately 88% effective at preventing mumps (one dose is about 72% effective). Even when vaccinated individuals contract mumps, their illness tends to be milder and less likely to cause complications or spread widely.

Doctors recommend that your child receive two doses of the MMR vaccine for the best protection: the first dose at 12–23 months of age and the second dose at 4–6 years. Staying up to date with both doses helps keep your child, your family, and your community safer from mumps and its complications.

12/28/2025

Do Physicians Receive a Kickback for Getting Their Patients Vaccinated?

In U.S. healthcare, a “kickback” has a very specific legal meaning: it’s an illegal payment meant to influence what a doctor orders or prescribes, and it’s explicitly banned by laws like the federal Anti-Kickback Statute and the Stark Law. If an insurer were secretly paying doctors extra money “under the table” for every vaccine they administered, that would be a major legal and regulatory violation. That’s not how vaccine payments work in normal practice. Doctors do not get secret per-shot bonuses from insurance companies to convince people to vaccinate.

So What Actually Happens?

The reality is far less exciting than the conspiracy theory. When a doctor gives a vaccine, they bill for the vaccine product itself and a small administration fee, just like they would for any other drug plus procedure.

Those payments are intended to cover the costs of purchasing and storing vaccines (often thousands of dollars' worth of inventory in the fridge), staff time, supplies, documentation, and billing overhead. Many pediatric and primary care practices complain that vaccine reimbursement is tight enough that they barely break even, and some lose money on certain vaccines if the insurer’s allowed amount is lower than what the practice paid to purchase them.

For uninsured or Medicaid-covered children, the Vaccines for Children (VFC) program supplies vaccines at no cost to the practice, and the clinic receives a modest administration fee. That fee is not a “bonus”; it’s there so clinics aren’t financially punished for vaccinating low-income kids.

There are also quality or “value-based” programs, where insurers or health systems pay small incentives tied to a bundle of measures: vaccination rates, diabetes control, blood pressure control, cancer screening, hospital readmissions, and more. If a clinic meets these targets, it may receive a bonus at the practice or system level. Vaccination is one metric among many, not a unique secret payout. These programs are transparent, contract-based, and are meant to align payment with preventive care and better outcomes—not to bribe individual physicians.

So, Why Do Doctors Push Vaccines If They’re Not Getting Rich?

The main drivers are the evidence base and lived clinical experience. Vaccines have dramatically reduced or nearly eliminated diseases like polio, diphtheria, Hib meningitis, congenital rubella, and severe measles in well-vaccinated populations. Older clinicians remember seeing kids intubated with epiglottitis or living with post-polio disability; younger clinicians still see outbreaks when vaccination rates fall. Preventing those outcomes is a primary reason why most people entered the medical field in the first place.

Ironically, from a strictly fee-for-service financial perspective, serious infections, hospitalizations, and complications can generate more billable work than a brief vaccine visit. If the system were truly driven only by “what makes the most money,” doing less vaccination and letting more people get sick would often be more profitable for the physician than preventing disease.

A More Accurate Way To Look At It

Doctors and clinics are reimbursed for providing vaccines just as they are for any other medical service, and some participate in quality programs where vaccination coverage is one of many measured outcomes. There is no credible evidence of widespread illegal kickbacks from insurers to physicians to promote the use of vaccines. That doesn’t mean the system is perfect, or that pharma and payers lack financial incentives—they absolutely have them—but the popular narrative that physicians are secretly paid off per shot doesn’t match how billing, regulation, or practice finances actually work.

12/26/2025

A Brief History of Vaccination

Vaccination has a surprisingly long and messy history—it didn’t start with modern syringes and randomized trials, but with people literally blowing powdered smallpox scabs up kids’ noses.

For centuries, smallpox was one of humanity’s biggest killers (30% mortality). In Asia and the Middle East, and later in Europe, people practiced variolation: they deliberately infected someone with material from a smallpox sore, either by scratching the skin or by introducing it into the nose. Most people got a milder form of the disease and then became immune, but there was still a real risk of new outbreaks, severe illness, and death (2% mortality). This practice reached Europe in the early 1700s, famously promoted in England by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu after she witnessed it in the Ottoman Empire, and it was already a subject of controversy at the time.

The modern vaccine story usually starts with Edward Jenner in 1796. Farmers had long observed that milkmaids who contracted cowpox (a mild pox infection transmitted by cows) appeared to be protected from smallpox. Jenner took material from a cowpox lesion on a milkmaid’s hand, inoculated an 8-year-old boy, and later exposed him to smallpox; the boy did not get sick. Jenner called this process “vaccination” (from v***a, Latin for cow). His method was much safer than variolation because cowpox caused only mild illness in humans. Over the 19th century, smallpox vaccination spread across Europe and then worldwide. Early vaccination laws in parts of Europe and the U.S. also sparked some of the first organized anti-vaccination movements, so that fight is not new.

In the late 1800s, Louis Pasteur and others revolutionized vaccination by developing a more comprehensive scientific approach to the field. The germ theory clarified that specific microbes cause specific diseases. Pasteur demonstrated that weakening (attenuating) a microbe in the laboratory could create a vaccine, as he did with chicken cholera, anthrax in livestock, and rabies (which was used in humans starting in the 1880s). Vaccination shifted from a one-off empirical trick (cowpox for smallpox) to a general approach: weaken or inactivate the pathogen, then use it to train the immune system.

The early 20th century witnessed significant advances in combating bacterial diseases. For diphtheria, doctors first used horse-derived antitoxin (passive immunity), then developed diphtheria toxoid in the 1920s–30s, turning a major childhood killer into a preventable disease. Tetanus toxoid was administered around the same time and was widely used in World War II to prevent tetanus in wounded soldiers. A whole-cell pertussis (whooping cough) vaccine emerged in the mid-century and was eventually combined with diphtheria and tetanus into the DTP/DTaP vaccine. Vaccines were becoming a standard part of routine childhood care, not just emergency tools for outbreaks.

The mid-1900s were the “golden age” of viral vaccines. Polio epidemics in the 1940s–50s terrified the public. Jonas Salk’s inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) was licensed in 1955, followed in the 1960s by Albert Sabin’s oral polio vaccine (OPV), which was easy to give and highly effective but carried a tiny risk of vaccine-associated paralytic polio. Widespread use led to the near elimination of polio in many countries. Measles, mumps, and rubella vaccines were introduced: measles in 1963 (refined in 1968), mumps in 1967, rubella in 1969, and then the combined MMR vaccine in the early 1970s, resulting in significant drops in measles hospitalizations, deaths, and congenital rubella syndrome. Other viral vaccines, including influenza, yellow fever, and rabies, expanded protection for travelers and high-risk workers. In 1980, following a massive global campaign, the world officially declared smallpox eradicated; the first and, to date, only human disease eradicated by vaccination.

From the 1980s onward, vaccine technology diversified. Early hepatitis B vaccines, made from infected plasma, were replaced by recombinant vaccines grown in yeast, marking a major leap in safety and technology. Hib (Haemophilus influenzae type b) conjugate vaccines, introduced in the late 1980s and 1990s, virtually eliminated Hib meningitis in many countries. Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCV), introduced around 2000, dramatically reduced invasive pneumococcal disease and some types of pneumonia in children. The varicella (chickenpox) vaccine, licensed in the 1990s, greatly reduced hospitalizations and severe complications. The HPV vaccine (mid-2000s) targets high-risk types of human papillomavirus that cause cervical and other cancers, making it one of the first vaccines explicitly aimed at cancer prevention. Rotavirus vaccines, introduced in the late 1990s and improved in the 2000s, sharply reduced hospitalizations for severe childhood diarrhea. These advances transformed pediatrics: diseases that every pediatrician used to see routinely became rare in well-vaccinated populations.

Alongside the successes, there have been real problems and controversies. The Cutter incident in 1955 involved a manufacturing failure in one polio vaccine batch that left some virus not fully inactivated; over 200 children were paralyzed, and several died, leading to much stricter manufacturing and regulatory standards. The original whole-cell pertussis vaccine caused high rates of fever and local reactions, fueling parental concern and anti-DTP movements in the 1970s–80s, and eventually prompting development of acellular pertussis vaccines. In 1998, a small, fraudulent case series by Andrew Wakefield suggested MMR might cause autism; the paper was later fully retracted, and Wakefield lost his medical license. Large, well-designed studies have since found no link between vaccines and autism, but the narrative persists.

Modern surveillance systems (like VAERS in the U.S. and similar systems worldwide) and vaccine injury compensation programs exist precisely because rare, serious adverse events do occur and need to be recognized, studied, and fairly addressed. The history of vaccination is not one of “perfect safety,” but rather an ongoing process of learning, correction, and refinement of standards.

The COVID-19 pandemic turbocharged vaccine development in the 2020s. mRNA vaccine technology had been in development for years, but COVID-19 was its first large-scale real-world test. In late 2020, mRNA vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 (Pfizer–BioNTech, Moderna) were authorized, along with viral vector and later protein-based vaccines. These studies demonstrated how quickly vaccines can be designed and updated once a platform exists, but they also highlighted the challenges of communicating under uncertainty, the politicization of vaccination, and the importance of real-time safety monitoring and transparent risk–benefit discussions when rare issues, such as myocarditis or vaccine-induced clotting syndromes, emerge.

Today, vaccination prevents millions of deaths worldwide every year, primarily from diseases like measles, tetanus, pertussis, and pneumonia. It has eradicated smallpox and nearly eradicated polio, and is expanding into new areas such as cancer prevention (HPV, HBV), RSV, and maternal immunization, with research into more personalized or “universal” vaccines (like universal flu).

At the same time, we’re dealing with vaccine hesitancy and misinformation, as well as real but rare adverse events that must be taken seriously, and ongoing debates about mandates, equity, and trust in public health. The story of vaccination is ultimately one of imperfect tools that have been refined over centuries into some of the most powerful interventions in modern medicine.

12/25/2025

What About Haemophilus Influenzae Type b (Hib)?

Hib is a bacterial infection (not the flu virus) that used to be one of the most dangerous diseases for young children. It can cause life-threatening infections such as meningitis, pneumonia, epiglottitis, and bloodstream infection (sepsis). Even with good medical care, these infections can lead to brain damage, hearing loss, or death.

Meningitis is an infection of the membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord (the meninges). It can cause high fever, headache, stiff neck, vomiting, confusion, or seizures. In babies, it may show up as poor feeding, irritability, or excessive sleepiness. It’s a medical emergency because it can quickly lead to brain damage, hearing loss, or death if not treated right away.

Pneumonia is an infection of the lungs. The tiny air sacs fill with pus and fluid, making it hard to breathe. Symptoms may include fever, cough, fast or labored breathing, chest pain, and fatigue. In young children and older adults, pneumonia can be especially serious and often requires hospital care.

Epiglottitis is a severe infection of the epiglottis, the small flap of tissue at the back of the throat that covers the windpipe when we swallow. When it’s infected, it becomes very swollen and can block the airway. Symptoms include sudden high fever, a very sore throat, drooling, difficulty swallowing, and trouble breathing. This is a life-threatening emergency because a child (or adult) can stop breathing without rapid treatment.

How Bad Was Hib Before the Vaccine?

Before the Hib vaccine was introduced, about 20,000 children per year (mostly under 5 years old) in the United States developed serious invasive Hib disease. Of these:

• Around 13,000 developed Hib meningitis each year
• About 1,000 children died annually from Hib infections

Globally, in the pre-vaccine era, Hib was estimated to cause roughly 371,000 deaths per year in children 1–59 months old, with fatality rates of about 5% in high-income countries and up to 30% in low-income settings. In many hospitals, Hib meningitis was a routine pediatric emergency, and survivors often had long-term neurologic problems or hearing loss.

What Has the Hib Vaccine Changed?

After the Hib vaccine was introduced in 1987 and rolled out widely through the 1990s and 2000s, the picture changed dramatically. In the U.S. and other highly vaccinated countries:
• Invasive Hib disease in children under 5 has fallen by more than 90–99%
• Hib meningitis has gone from common to rare, with only a small number of cases reported each year nationally
• Most remaining cases occur in unvaccinated or under-vaccinated children or in those with serious immune problems

Globally, the introduction of Hib (and pneumococcal) vaccines is estimated to have saved over a million children’s lives over the last 15 years. In short, Hib vaccination has turned a major killer and leading cause of bacterial meningitis into a largely preventable disease wherever high coverage is achieved.

How Do We Protect Kids Today?

To maintain that protection, doctors recommend that children receive a series of Hib shots during infancy and toddlerhood. For most products, the schedule is:
• 2 months
• 4 months
• 6 months (for some brands)
• A booster at 12–15 months

Finishing the full Hib series is one of the most effective ways to protect your child from a disease that once caused thousands of cases of meningitis and hundreds of deaths each year in young children.

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