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Biomedical science Zambia, along church Road, Lusaka (2025)

29/07/2025

URINE MICROSCOPY

Simple Microcopy results and some issues that may bring about them.

1. *WBC (White Blood Cells)*: Presence of WBCs can indicate a Urinary Tract Infection (UTI), pyelonephritis, or interstitial nephritis. Significant bacteriuria often accompanies WBCs.

2. *RBC (Red Blood Cells)*: RBCs in urine can be due to:
- *Glomerular causes*: Glomerulonephritis, IgA nephropathy
- *Non-glomerular causes*: Kidney stones, tumors, infections (UTI, pyelonephritis), trauma, or medications like cyclophosphamide.

3. Epithelial Cells (Ep.Cells): Presence can indicate:
- *Renal tubular damage* (if renal tubular cells are seen)
- *Contamination* (if squamous epithelial cells are predominant)

4. *TV (Trichomonas Vaginalis)*: Presence indicates a Trichomonas vaginalis infection, a sexually transmitted infection.

5. *Yeast*: Presence can indicate a fungal infection, especially in diabetic or immunocompromised patients.

6. *Casts*:
- *Hyaline casts*: Can be normal or seen in concentrated urine
- *Cellular casts (RBC, WBC)*: Indicate glomerulonephritis or pyelonephritis
- *Granular casts*: Suggest kidney damage or disease
- *Waxy casts*: Indicate chronic kidney disease

7. *Crystals*: Presence can indicate:
- *Kidney stones* (depending on the type of crystal)
- *Metabolic disorders* (e.g., cystinuria, oxalosis)

8. *Parasite*: Presence of parasites like Schistosoma haematobium eggs can indicate a parasitic infection..

25/07/2025

A haematology analyser for sale - Celtac 3 part - Nikon Kohden.

Don't worry about reagents, there is a supplier and you shall be connected.

Going for only K70,000 .

07/06/2025

RHESUS BLOOD GROUP SYSTEM

30/05/2025

ASCARIASIS

Ascariasis is a parasitic infection caused by the roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides. It's a common human helminthic infection, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions, and is usually caused by consuming food or drink contaminated with the roundworm's eggs. While many infections are asymptomatic, heavier infestations can cause various symptoms, including coughing, wheezing, abdominal pain, and potential intestinal blockages.

1. What it is:
Ascariasis is an infection with the parasitic roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides.
The roundworms are helminths, which are parasitic worms that live in the intestines of their host.
They are particularly common in areas with poor sanitation and hygiene practices, often in tropical and subtropical regions.

2. How it's transmitted:
People become infected by swallowing the roundworm eggs, which are found in food or water contaminated with human f***s.
Ingesting soil contaminated with human f***s or vegetables and water contaminated with eggs can also lead to infection.
Transmission from person to person by direct contact is not possible.

3. Symptoms:
Mild infections: May be asymptomatic.
More significant infections: Can cause a range of symptoms, including:
Coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath.
Abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting.
Intestinal blockages, especially in cases of heavy infestation.
In children, chronic infections can lead to malnutrition and growth retardation.

4. Diagnosis:
Medical laboratory personells usually diagnose ascariasis by examining a stool sample for roundworm eggs or adult worms.
In some cases, adult worms may be found in other locations, like the nose, mouth, or re**um. Here's a more detailed look at ascariasis:

5. Treatment:
Ascariasis is typically treated with antiparasitic medications, such as albendazole, mebendazole, or ivermectin.
In some cases, surgical procedures may be necessary to address complications like intestinal blockages.

6. Prevention:
Good hygiene practices:
Proper handwashing, especially after using the toilet and before eating, can help prevent infection.

Safe water:
Ensuring access to clean water and proper sewage disposal can help prevent the spread of the disease.

Avoid contaminated food:
Choosing food that is cooked properly and from reliable sources can help reduce the risk of infection.

Education:
Educating individuals about the causes and prevention of ascariasis can help reduce the burden of the disease.

23/05/2025

HIV RECEPTORS AND CORECEPTORS AS BASIS OF ENDING NEW HIV INFECTIONS??

Removing HIV receptors and coreceptors from humans, particularly CD4 and CCR5/CXCR4, would significantly impact the virus's ability to infect cells and would likely result in complete resistance to HIV infection. HIV relies on these receptors and coreceptors to enter cells and initiate the infection process.

CD4:
This is the primary receptor that HIV binds to on immune cells, allowing it to initiate the infection process.

CCR5 and CXCR4:
These are coreceptors that, along with CD4, are essential for HIV to effectively enter cells.

Resistance to HIV:
Individuals with NATURAL MUTATION in the CCR5 gene, for example, are resistant to HIV infection due to the lack of functional CCR5 receptors. Similarly, removing or disabling these receptors through gene editing or other means would likely confer similar resistance.

HIV's Entry Mechanism:
HIV requires both the CD4 receptor and a coreceptor (CCR5 or CXCR4) to bind to a cell and initiate the fusion process that allows the virus to enter the cell.

Impact on HIV Replication:
If the receptors and coreceptors are removed, HIV would be unable to bind to and enter cells, thus preventing replication and the spread of the virus.

Potential for HIV Cure:
This is a key area of research for developing potential HIV cures or therapies. Disabling the entry of HIV is a major focus.
Possible Side Effects:

While removing receptors could offer a high level of protection against HIV, potential side effects need to be considered, as these receptors also play roles in other immune processes.

In essence, removing HIV receptors and coreceptors would disrupt the virus's ability to enter and infect cells, leading to a state of HIV resistance and potentially offering a path towards an HIV cure.

21/05/2025

PHAGOCYTOSIS

Phagocytosis is the process by which macrophages, a type of immune cell, engulf and digest particles such as pathogens or debris.
This vital function helps the body defend itself against infections and maintain tissue homeostasis.
The process begins when particle ligands bind to specific receptors on the surface of the macrophage.
Microbiology Notes

11/05/2025

ELECTROLYTES PANEL
WHAT ARE ELECTROLYTES USED FOR?

An electrolyte panel is often part of a routine blood screening or a comprehensive metabolic panel. The test may also be used to find out if your body has a fluid imbalance or an imbalance in acid and base levels.

Electrolytes are usually measured together. But sometimes they are tested individually. Separate testing may be done if a provider suspects a problem with a specific electrolyte.

Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals that help control the amount of fluids and the balance of acids and bases in your body. They also help control muscle and nerve activity, heart rhythm, and other important functions. An electrolyte panel, also known as a serum electrolyte test, is a blood test that measures levels of the body's main electrolytes:

Sodium, which helps control the amount of fluid in the body. It also helps your nerves and muscles work properly.

Chloride, which also helps control the amount of fluid in the body. In addition, it helps maintain healthy blood volume and blood pressure.

Potassium, which helps your heart and muscles work properly.

Bicarbonate, which helps maintain the body's acid and base balance. It also plays an important role in moving carbon dioxide through the bloodstream.

Abnormal levels of any of these electrolytes can be a sign of a serious health problem, including kidney disease, high blood pressure, and a life-threatening irregularity in heart rhythm.

Other names: serum electrolyte test, lytes, sodium (Na), potassium (K), chloride (Cl), carbon dioxide (CO2)

10/05/2025

TREPONEMA AND NON TREPONEA TESTS IN THE LABORATORY

Treponemal and non-treponemal tests are both used to detect syphilis, but they differ in what they detect and how they're used. Non-treponemal tests are screening tests that look for non-specific antibodies produced during the body's response to infection, while treponemal tests are confirmatory tests that specifically target antibodies against the Treponema pallidum bacteria, the cause of syphilis.

Non-Treponemal Tests:

What they detect:
These tests, like the Rapid Plasma Reagin (RPR) or Venereal Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL) tests, look for antibodies against cardiolipin and other lipoidal antigens. These are not specific to syphilis, meaning they can be positive for other conditions besides syphilis.

How they're used:
Non-treponemal tests are primarily used as a screening tool to detect possible syphilis infections. A positive result prompts further testing with a treponemal test for confirmation.

Advantages:
They are rapid, relatively inexpensive, and widely available.

Disadvantages:
They are less specific than treponemal tests and can produce false-positive results. Here's a more detailed comparison:

Monitoring:
Non-treponemal titers (RPR or VDRL) are used to monitor treatment response and for detecting relapses or reinfection. Here's a more detailed comparison:

Treponemal Tests:

What they detect:
These tests, like the Fluorescent Treponemal Antibody Absorption (FTA-ABS) or Treponema pallidum particle agglutination (TP-PA), directly target antibodies against T. pallidum proteins.

How they're used:
Treponemal tests are used to confirm a positive non-treponemal test result or can be used as a primary screening test, depending on the specific clinical setting.

Advantages:
They are highly specific and can distinguish between current and past infections.

Disadvantages:
They can persist for life even after successful treatment, making it difficult to distinguish between past and current infections.

Monitoring:
Treponemal tests are not used for monitoring treatment response, as the antibodies persist

09/05/2025

RAPIN PLASMA REAGIN - RPR

The RPR (Rapid Plasma Reagin) card test is a screening test for syphilis that detects reagin antibodies in blood. It's a qualitative and semi-quantitative non-treponemal flocculation test. The test involves mixing the blood sample with an antigen on a card, and if reagin antibodies are present, they will cause the antigen to agglutinate, resulting in visible clumps.

What it tests for:
The RPR test looks for reagin antibodies, which are produced in the body in response to syphilis infection.

How it works:
The test uses a card coated with a special antigen that reacts with reagin antibodies. If antibodies are present, they will bind to the antigen, causing it to agglutinate (clump together).

How to read the results:
The presence of clumps indicates a positive result, suggesting the presence of syphilis. The test can also provide semi-quantitative results, indicating the level of reagin antibodies.

Why it's used:
The RPR test is used as a screening test for syphilis, meaning it's used to detect the presence of the disease before a more specific test is performed.

Next steps:
If the RPR test is positive, a more specific test, such as the FTA-ABS test, may be performed to confirm the diagnosis

08/05/2025

Stool sample
identify?

07/05/2025

GLASS SLIDES AND COVERSLIPS

Glass slides are used to place experimental materials during experiments; The cover glass is covered on the material to avoid contact between the liquid and the objective lens, so as not to pollute the objective lens.

06/05/2025

Whats the importance of examination gloves in the lab?

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