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21/11/2025

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HYDROCEPHALUSBy Chipo James MaindaThe term hydrocephalus is derived from Greek words "Hydro" meaning water, and "Cephalu...
20/11/2025

HYDROCEPHALUS

By Chipo James Mainda

The term hydrocephalus is derived from Greek words "Hydro" meaning water, and "Cephalus" meaning head. As the name implies, it is a condition in which the primary characteristic is that there is excessive accumulation of fluid in the brain.

Although hydrocephalus was once known as "waters on the brain", the "water" is actually cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), a clear fluid that surrounds the brain and the spinal cord. The excessive accumulation of CSF results in abnormal widening of spaces in the brain called ventricles. This widening creates potential harmful pressure on the tissues of the brain.

Hydrocephalus is a central nervous system disorder affecting the brain, in which there is an excess or accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) inside the brain (cavities/ventricles deep within the brain), due to an imbalance between cerebrospinal fluid production and absorption leading to a build up of CSF in the brain, characterized by loss of brain tissue function and enlarged head size.

Based on its underlying mechanisms, hydrocephalus can be classified into two main classification:
* Communicating/non obstructive hydrocephalus.
* Non communicating/obstructive hydrocephalus.
Both forms can either be conge***al or acquired. Conge***al is due to an obstruction of the cerebral aqueduct (aqueductal sternosis). Acquired may result from spina bifida, intraventricular hemorrhage, meningitis, head trauma, brain tumors etc.

The signs and symptoms may include; an abnormal growth of the head. Widening of the lambdoidal sutures. Increased intracranial pressure. Headache, nausea and vomiting, confusion etc.

Hydrocephalus treatment is surgical. It involves the placement of a ventricular catheter into the cerebral ventricles to bypass the flow obstruction/malfunctioning arachnoidal granulations and drain the excess fluid into other body cavities, from where it can be absorbed. Common shunt include ventriculoperitoneal shunt. It is the most commonly used, as peritoneal cavity provides adequate blood supply to ensure reabsorption of CSF and has large space to accommodate the coiled catheter tubing.

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Exam TipsNot ifi mu exam bane
19/11/2025

Exam Tips
Not ifi mu exam bane

Most of the time this set of people called patient’s relatives will always want to teach you your own career. Sometimes ...
18/11/2025

Most of the time this set of people called patient’s relatives will always want to teach you your own career.
Sometimes they will be like are you sure that you can do it?
They may even ask you if you can inject or should they help you.
It only takes wisdom and carefulness to overcome them.

PHYSIOLOGY OF PREGNANCYBy Chipo James MaindaPregnancy and its changes is a normal physiological process that happens in ...
18/11/2025

PHYSIOLOGY OF PREGNANCY

By Chipo James Mainda

Pregnancy and its changes is a normal physiological process that happens in all mammalian in response to the development of the fetus.

Understanding of these normal changes, help in serving the pregnant woman better. The changes take place in several systems in the pregnant woman's body such as the reproductive, cardiovascular, digestive, respiratory, musculoskeletal, endocrine, urinary system etc.

CHANGES IN THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The effects of oestrogen and progesterone cause the uterus to become thicker, richer more vascular at the fundus. The myometrium fibres increases in size. Uterus increase in weight from 60g to 900g. Uterus increasea in size to accommodate the growing foetus and stretches to cause pressure on other pelvic organs. The cervix begins to secret thick mucus called opeculum which provide protection from ascending infections. The va**na on the other hand become more elastic and the secretion of leacorrhoea (a whitish va**nal discharge) increases.

CHANGES IN THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

Here, the heart increases in size due to increased workload to pump blood to the placenta. The heart is displaced upward and to the left due to pressure of the growing foetus. There is increase in blood volume especially the red blood cells (RBCs). Nevertheless, plasma also increases causing physiological anaemia.

SKIN CHANGES

Some women develop deeper, patchy coloring of the face called Chloasma. Linea nigra appears running from the p***s to the umbilicus and sometimes even higher. Strae graviderum appear on the abdomen, breast, and thighs due to stretching of collagen layer of the skin.

CHANGES IN THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT

There's increased salivation (ptyalism), women often experience changes in their sense of taste leading to dietary changes and food craving. Craving for unnatural substances like soil (pica). Constipation is common due to sluggish gut motility as a result of progesterone. Nausea and and vomiting occur mainly during early pregnancy, possibly due to raised oestrogen.

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18/11/2025

Biostatistics, Research and Epidemiology lessons are ongoing

17/11/2025

Name one mistake you made during your academic year
so that someone can learn from you

We are The Nurses Zone Documentary ❤️
16/11/2025

We are The Nurses Zone Documentary ❤️

16/11/2025

Bachelor of Science in Nursing 2025/2026 Intake Lecture Group

16/11/2025

Bachelor of Science in Nursing Tuition Fees

K250 (for all the 7 courses)
1. Anatomy
2. Physiology
3. Biochemistry
4. General and systemic pathology
5. Microbiology
6. Parasitology
7. Immunology

K250 (for both courses)
1. Adult medical surgical nursing
2. Communication, Professionalism and Student Support

K250 (for all the 3 courses)
1. Biostatistics
2. Epidemiology
3. Research

K250 (for all the 3 courses)
1. Leadership Management and governance practice
2. Public health
3. Nursing education

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Role of hormones
15/11/2025

Role of hormones

PUERPERAL SEPSISBy Chipo James MaindaPuerperal sepsis is an infection of the reproductive tract/birth canal in the first...
14/11/2025

PUERPERAL SEPSIS

By Chipo James Mainda

Puerperal sepsis is an infection of the reproductive tract/birth canal in the first 6 weeks following labour or abortion characterized by body temperature of 38°c or more, and if untreated, it is often fatal. The causes may include; streptococcus Haemolyticus, streptococcus anaerobes, staphylococcus aureus, escherichia coli, clostridium tetani etc. The mode of spread are:

* Exogenous: here, the infection occurs as a result of contaminating from attendant's nose and throat infection, nails, clothes from the environment as a result of inadequate cleaning and from dirty bed linen. These microorganisms may be introduced into the va**na by unclean hands.

* Endogenous: this may be via the bacteria normally found in the va**na and re**um which doesn't cause harm (normal flora). Nevertheless, these can become harmful and cause infection if they are brought into the va**na or uterus by examining higher or instrument during delivery.

* Autogenous: this originates from the patient herself, that is, can be from the nose, skin, throat, or any septic focus that one may have. Autogenous organisms are present elsewhere in the body which migrate to ge***al organs either through the bloodstream or conveyed to site by patient herself.

The predisposing factors include; lowering of local resistance due to bruising or laceration of the va**na, interference of the normal flora in the va**na, instrument deliveries, retained product of conception, obstructed or prolonged traumatic labour, untreated local infection etc

Puerperium is the period from the completion of delivery (end of 3rd stage of labour) to the end of the first 6 weeks postpartum, during which time the woman body returns to the normal nongravid state. It is characterized by physical, physiological and psychological adjustment. Puerperal sepsis can be caused by staphylococcus, streptococcus and gonococcus in rare cases.

These microorganisms can be introduced into the va**na by unclean hands and cause infection. Or for example, if the membranes rupture many hours before delivery of the baby, bacteria may enter the uterus and infect the membranes, placenta, fetus and mother herself. After delivery the infection may be localized in the birth canal, uterus or spread to fallopian tubes, ovaries or bloodstream causing septicemia and in severe cases septic shock and coagulation problems which can therefore be fatal if not treated.

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